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Book ^ 

Copyright ]^°. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 



HELIOS 

A Compilation of Boiler Room 
Engineering Information 

Published by 

HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

Manufacturers of 

Water Tube Boilers 




SAINT LOUIS 

1912 




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£CI.A312370 



Heine Safety Boiler Co. 

General Offices 

2449 East Marcus Avenue 
St. Louis, Mo. 



Shops 

St. Louis, Mo. Phoenixville, Pa. 



Branch Offices 

New York Boston Philadelphia 

11 Broadway Boston Safe Deposit and Trust Bldg. Pennsylvania Bldg. 

Pittsburgh Cincinnati Chicago 

Fulton Bldg. Union Trust Bldg. Monadnock Bldg. 

New Orleans 

Godchaux Bldg. 



Representatives 

Denver Charlotte, N. C. 

Stearns Roger Mfg. Co. Alexander & Garsed 

Dallas Toronto 

Smith and Whitney Poison Iron Works 

Oakland Los Angeles Seattle Spokane 

United Iron Works 

Monterey, Mexico Yokohama, Japan 

Sanford & Co. Takata & Co, 

Perth, West Australia 

Frank Perrot 



Copyright 1912 
HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

St. Louis, Mo. 



PRESS OF BUXTON & SKINNER, SAINT LOUIS 



Preface to Eleventh Edition. 

SINCE Helios was first published, eighteen years ago, many changes 
in engineering practice have come about, and many of the pre- 
viously accepted constants which were based on experimental 
data, have been changed as the result of more refined methods of deter- 
mination. In order to bring everything up to date the entire text has 
been rewritten and a determined effort has been made to have all data 
authentic and accurate. We feel no hesitancy in commending the book 
as worthy of confidence and for ready reference, to every one who may 
find use for the material which it contains. 

As Helios falls into the hands of all classes of those interested in 
steam engineering, its scope must be broad, and much of the text will 
therefore appear elementary to some, but there will doubtless be some- 
thing of interest to all. 

The main value of the book to us lies in its value to others and while 
it is issued primarily as a piece of advertising literature most of the matter 
relating to the Heine Boiler has been grouped in the back pages. 



St. Louis, January 1, 1912. 



HELIOS 

Source of All Power! Fountain of Light and Warmthi 



Adored by the ancient husbandman as the God who blessed his 
labors with a harvest of golden grain; revered by the early sage as the 
great visible means of the divine creative force; pictured by the inspired 
artist as the tireless charioteer who drives his four fiery steeds daily 
across the heavens, his head circled by a crown of rays, his chariot wheel 
the disk of the sun itself. 

When primeval man began to think, the sun seemed to him the 
cause of all those wonders in nature which ministered to his simple wants, 
or taught his soul to hope. His crude feelings of awe and gratitude blos- 
somed into worship, and we find the sun as central figure in all early 
religions. He was the Suraya of the Hindoos, the Baal of the Phoeni- 
cians, the Odin of the Norsemen, and his temples arose alike in ancient 
Mexico and Peru. As Mithras of the Parsees, he was adored as the 
symbol of the Supreme Deity, his messenger and agent for all good. As 
Osiris he received the worship and offerings of the Egyptians, whose 
priests, early adepts in the rudiments of science, saw in him the cause 
of the annual fructifying overflow of the Nile. 

Modern knowledge, with its vast array of facts and figures, can 
but verify and seal the faith of these ancient observers. What they 
dimly discerned as probable is now the central fact of physical science. 
From him are derived all the forces of nature which have been yoked 
into the service of man. All animal and plant life draws its daily suste- 
nance from the warmth and light of the sun, and it is but his transmuted 
energy we expend, when, with muscle of man or horse, we load our truck 
or roll it along the highway. 

Do we irrigate the soil from the pumps of a myriad windmills.? His 
rays, on plains far inland, supply the energy for the breeze which turns 
their vanes. Does a lumbering wheel drive a dozen stamps and a primi- 
tive arastra in some Mexican canyon.? Do mighty turbines whirl a 
million flying spindles and shake thousands of clattering looms on the 
banks of some New England stream.? From the bosom of the ocean and 
the swamps of the tropics, Helios lifted those vapory Titans whose 
lifeblood courses in the mountain torrent and the river of the plain. Do 
a hundred cars rattle up the steep streets of the smiling city by the 
Golden Gate? Are massive ingots of steel forged to shape and size by 
the giant hammers of Bethlehem.? The fuel which gives them motion 
was stored for us, ages before man was evolved, by the rays which flash 
from his chariot wheels! "The heat now radiating from our fire places 
has at some time previously been transmitted to the earth from the sun. 
\{ it.be wood that we are burning, then we are using the sunbeams that 
have shone on the earth within a few decades. If it be coal, then we are 
transforming to heat the solar energy which arrived at the earth millions 
of years ago." 



Professor Langley remarks that "the great coal fields of Pennsyl- 
vania contain enough of the precious mineral to supply the wants of the 
United States for a thousand years. If all that tremendous accumu- 
lation of fuel were to be extracted and burned in one vast conflagration, 
the total quantity of heat that would be produced would, no doubt, be 
stupendous, and yet," says this authority, who has taught us so much 
about the sun, "all the heat developed by that terrific coal fire would 
not be equal to that which the sun pours forth in the thousandth part of 
each single second." 

The almost limitless stores of petroleum which are found in America 
and in Asia, and the smaller, though still vast supplies of natural gas 
which some favored localities are now exploiting, represent but so much 
sun-energy transmuted through forests of prehistoric vegetation. 

Another authority tells us that the total amount of living force 
"which the sun pours out yearly upon every acre of the earth's surface, 
chiefly in the form of heat, is 800,000 horse-power." And he estimates 
that a flourishing crop utilizes only 4-10 of 1 per cent of this power. 

Remembering, then, that this sun-energy reaches us only one-half 
of each day, we may, whenever we learn how, pick up on every acre an 
average of 175 horse-power during each hour of daylight, as a surplus 
which nature does not require for her work of food production. 

Attempts to utilize this daily waste have been made, and future 
inventors may fire their boilers directly with the radiant heat of the sun. 
But whether we depend on what lie garnered for us ages ago, or quite 
recently, or on the stores he will lavish on us in the future, it is clear that 
man's continued existence on earth is directly dependent on Helios. 

In olden times the various trades or guilds chose as their patron 
saint some prominent person who was thought to have embodied in his 
life-work the special means and methods of their craft. By that token 
we claim Helios as our own. He has always carried the record for evap- 
orative efficiency. He provides both the fuel and the water for our 
boilers. He teaches us perfect circulation, upward as mingled vapor 
and water by the action of heat, and down again by gravity as rain and 
river in solid water. It is therefore fit that the boiler in which this per- 
fect and unobstructed circulation is made the leading feature of con- 
struction should have HELIOS as its emblem. 

In the following pages we give some account of the fuels used in the 
practical arts, of the water which becomes the vehicle for transmitting 
their energy into mechanical power, and of the limitations imposed by 
their varying conditions. These must all be taken into account in esti- 
mating how much we may expect of certain combinations of machinery. 

We trust that the tables and data may be found convenient for 
ready reference alike by professional men, by manufacturers, and by 
that growing class of practical steam engineers who realize that true 
theory, consonant with collective experience, is within the reach of every 
thoughtful man who pulls the throttle. E. D. MEIER. 

This explanation of the choice of the word HELIOS, as the name of 
this book, appeared as the preface of the first edition in July, 1893, and 
the word has ever since been a prominent feature of our trade mark. 




HELIOS 

HEAT. 

THEORY OF HEAT. 

PROBABLY the first scientific hypothesis concerning the theory of 
heat was promulgated by Bacon, who described heat as being a 
vibratory motion of the smallest parts of bodies and this view 
seems to have been accepted largely, until the latter part of the 17th 
century, when it was replaced, partly at least, by the suggestion that heat 
is an imponderable chemical substance, the reading of which theory is 
now both interesting and amusing. In 1789, however, Benjamin Thomp- 
son, Count Rumford, conducted very extensive and exhaustive experi- 
ments for the Bavarian government in the Arsenal at Munich, Bavaria, 
which were discussed by him in a paper presented to the Royal Society 
of Great Britain. He stated that heat is not a substance, as it was at 
that time regarded, but that it is a form of energy, caused by a vibratory 
motion of the atoms or molecules of a body. Thompson's deductions 
have been verified by many other distinguished investigators, and from 
the various results, have been deduced the now accepted doctrine of the 
"conservation of energy," and the more important one of the determina- 
tion of a definite measurable relation between the two forms of energy, 
heat and work. 

Heat as a form of energy is subject to the laws which govern every 
other form of energy and which control all matter in motion, whatever 
such motion be, molecular or of masses. 

Most lines of manufacture are directly dependent in some way upon 
the agency of heat, so that it is of great importance to acquire as much 
knowledge as possible of its varied sources, and of the physical and chemical 
laws governing its economical production and use. 

HEAT MEASUREMENTS. 

Quantities of heat are measured as follows: 

In the "Enghsh System," by the British Thermal Unit (B. T. U.), 
which is the quantity of heat required to raise one pound of pure water 
one degree (1°) F. from 62° F. 63° F. 




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HELIOS 9 

In the "French or Metric System," by the Calorie (Cal.), which is 
the quantity of heat required to raise one kilogramme of pure water 
1°C. from 15°C. to 1G°C. 

HEAT CONVERSION. 

Heat may be converted, as the result of either physical or chemical 
action, into any other form of energy, and another form of energy may 
be, in a like manner, converted into heat, all such conversions being in 
calculable amounts. 

Nearly all physical phenomena, in fact, involve heat transformation 
or conversion in one form or another, and in a greater or less degree, under 
the laws of energetics. 

According to the first of those laws, such changes must always occur 
in a definite ratio, and when heat disappears in known quantities it is 
always certain that energy of some kind in calculable amount will appear 
as its equivalent; the reverse is as invariably the case when heat is pro- 
duced; it always represents and measures an equivalent amount of mechan- 
ical, electrical, chemical or other energy expended. 

MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT. 

Dr. Joule, from 1843 to 1849, made an elaborate series of experiments, 
and established the fact that heat converted into work or vice versa, was 
always in definite quantivalence, and also determined that one heat unit 
was the equivalent in work of 772 ft. lbs., but more recent experiments 
have resulted in the establishment of 778 ft. lbs., as the "mechanical 
equivalent" of one B. T. U. 

A weight of 778 lbs. falling through a distance of 1 ft. develops energy 
equivalent to 1 B. T. U., which is the quantity of heat required to raise 
1 lb. of water 1°F. as above stated. 

In the French system 424 kilogram meters is the mechanical equiva- 
lent, since the weight 424 kilo, falling through a distance of one meter 
developes energy equivalent to one Calorie, which is the quantity of heat 
required to raise one kilo, of water 1°C. 

This relation of work done, to heat generated, or vice versa, is com- 
monly stated as the first principle of Thermodynamics. 

The commonly recognized English unit of work is the "Horse Power," 
which was established by James Watt, as being 33000 lbs. raised one foot 
-in one minute. 



10 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

The French or Metric unit of work is the "Cheval Vapeur," which is 
the equivalent of 4500 kilogrammes, raised one meter in one minute. 

The unit of electrical work is the Watt, and 746 Watts is the equiva- 
lent of one English H. P. 

Tables No. 1 and No. 2 give a comparison of the commonly used 
English and Metric units. 

Table No. 1 

IB. T. U. = 0.2520 Calorie 1 Calorie = 3.9683 B. T. U. 

" "=778. Ft. lbs. " " =3087.3 Ft. lbs. 

" "= 0.023575 H. P. " " = 0.09355 H. P. 

" " = 17.5869 Watts " " = 69.785 Watts 

" " = 107.5196 Kilogrammeters. " " = 426.64 Kilogrammeters 

" "= 0.2389 Cheval Vapeur " " = 0.09482 Cheval Vapeur 

1 H. P. = ^ -- -- - - 



3000 


Ft. lbs. 1 Cheval 


V 


apeur 


=■ 


32535. Ft. lbs. 


42.416 


B. T. U. 




ii 


= 


41.846 B. T. U. 


746. 


Watts 




" 


= 


735.99 Watts 


10.6886 


Calories " " 




" 


= 


10.545 Calories 


4550.55 


Kilogrammeters " " 




" 


= 


4500. Kilogrammeters 


1.0136 


Cheval Vapeurs " " 
Table No. 2 




u 




0.9863 H. P. 



1 B. T. U. per sq. ft. = 2.713 Cals. per sq. meter 

1 Cal. per sq. meter = 0.369 B. T. U. per sq. ft. 

1 B. T. U. per lb. = 0.556 Calorie per kilogramme 

1 Calorie per kilogramme = 1.80 B. T. U. per lb. 

HEAT DEFINITIONS. 

The Total Heat of a substance is the sum of the latent heat and of the 
sensible heat measured from some definite temperature and state. 

Sensible Heat is that portion of the total heat of any body, which 
can be felt or which is made evident by a rise in temperature. 

Latent Heat is that which manifests itself in some manner other 
than in the change of temperature, either as change of volume, as when 
iron is heated, or of state, as when a solid changes into a liquid or a liquid 
into a gas. The most common examples, illustrating the difference 
between latent heat and sensible heat, is the melting of ice and the boil- 
ing of water, in which cases a change of state takes place, requiring heat, 
but without a change in temperature. 

If heat be applied to a block of ice in an open vessel, its tempera- 
ture begins to rise and continues until 32°F. (0.00°C.) is reached, at which 
point the ice begins to melt. Continue the heating and the melting 
continues, but without any further rise of temperature, the heat being 



HELIOS 11 

absorbed and used up in producing and continuing the melting and the 
thermometer will continue to stand at 32°F., until the ice is all melted 
and we have water at 32°F. 

The heat absorbed, in thus changing the mass from ice (a solid) 
into water (a liquid) at 32°F. and at atmospheric pressure is 142.6 B. 
T. U. per lb. and is called the "latent heat of fusion of ice." 

If the application of heat continues, the water at once commences 
to rise in temperature, continuing to do so until 212°F. (100°C.) is reached, 
when the formation of steam commences. Continuing the heating, the 
boiling continues, but no rise of temperature is produced, the heat thus 
added to the water being utilized in changing the liquid (water) into 
steam (a gas), and as it is impossible to heat water above 212°F. under 
atmospheric pressure, the steam will continue to pass off at212°F. until 
all the water has been evaporated. In this change of state, from water 
(a liquid) into steam (a gas) 970.4 B. T. U. per lb. have been absorbed 
and this quantity is designated "latent heat of evaporation of water." 

Table No. 3 

LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF VARIOUS SOLIDS. 

Beeswax 76.14 B. T. U. Paraffine 63.27 B. T. U. 

Bismuth 22.75" " " Phosphorus 9.06" 

Ice 142.6 " " " Silver 37.93" 

Iron grev, cast. . . . 41.40 " " " Spermacetti 66.56 " 

" white " 59.46" " " Sulphur 16.86" 

Lead 9.66 " " " Tin 25.65 " 

" . 10.55 " " " Zinc 50.63 " 

Mercury 5.08 " " " 

EXPANSION BY HEAT. 

Probably the most common and familiar example of the action of 
heat upon a body is the change of volume or length which results. 

Almost every substance grows larger when heated. The amount 
of change differs in different substances. Table No. 7 gives the "co-effi- 
cient of expansion" of various substances. This term means simply the 
change of dimension of unit size of a substance with a one degree change 
in temperature. 

RADIANT HEAT. 

Heat is radiated from hot bodies in all directions and to an indefi- 
nite distance. Heat rays follow a direct path and their intensity varies 
inversely as the square of distance. 



H E L I O S 



13 



Table No. 4 



LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION OF VARIOUS LIQUIDS. 



Alcohol ethyl 371.0 

" methyl 481. 

Ammonia f)29. 

Bisulphide of Carbon 162. 

Ether . 162.8 

Wood Spirits 474. 



T. U. Sulphur dioxide 164.8 B. 

Sulphuric ether 175. " 

Turpentine 183. " 

« ] 24. " 

Water 970.4 " 



T. U. 



Table No. 5 



APPROXIMATE MELTING POINTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 



Acid Acetic 113°F 

" Carbonic 10S°F 

" Sulphuric- 240°- 590°F 

" Sulphurous 148°F 

" Stearic 158°F 

Aluminum 1157°-1213°F 

Antimony 810°-1150°F 

Bismuth 504°-514°F 

Brass 1859°F 

Bromine 9 . 5°F 

Bronze 1652°-1690°F 

Cadium 442°F 

Copper 1929°-1996°F 

Delta Metal 1742°F 

Glass 1832°-2377°F 

Pure Gold 1943°-2282°F 

Gunmetal... 1700°F 

Ice 32°F 

Iron, grey cast 2012°-2228°F 

" white " 1922°-2075°F 

" wrought" 2732°-2912°F 

" pure " 2975°F 

Lard 95°F 

Lead 608°- 617°F 



Manganese 3452°F 

Magnesium 1200°F 

Mercury — 39°F 

Nickel 2732°F 

Nitro Glvcerine 45°F 

Pitch...' 91°F 

Phosphorus 112°F 

Platinum 3227°-34.52°F 

Potassium Sulphate 18.59°F 

Potassium 136°- 144°F 

Saltpetre 606°F 

Silver 1733°-1873°F 

Sodium 194°- 20S°F 

Spermacetti 120°F 

Stearine 109°- 120°F 

Steel (hard) 2570°F 

Steel (mild) 2687°F 

Sulphur 239°F 

Tallow 92°F 

Tin 442°- 446°F 

Turpentine 14°F 

Wax (rough) 142°F 

Wax (bleached) 154°F 

Zinc 773°- 779°F 



Table No. 6 



BOILING POINTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 
(14.7 LBS. PER SQ. IN.) 



Sulphuric Ether 100°F 

Carbon Bisulphide 118°F 

Ammonia 140°F 

Chloroform 140°F 

Bromine ' 145°F 

Wood Spirits 150°F 

Alcohol 17.3°F 

Benzine 176°F 

Naphtha 186°F 

Water 212°F 

Mercury 676°F 



Average Sea Water 213°F 

Saturated Brine 226°F 

Nitric Acid (S. G. 1.42) 248°F 

Turpentine (oil) 31.5°F 

Phosphorus 5o4°F 

Coal Tar 32.5°F 

Petroleum rectified 316°F 

Sulphur 570°F 

Sulphuric acid (S. G. 1.848) 590°F 

Linseed oil 597°F 



14 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



Table No. 7 



LINEAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS AT ORDINARY TEMPERATURES. 



Substance. 



For 1°F 



For 1°C 



Aluminum (cast) .... 
Antimony (cryst) ... 

Bismuth 

Brass (cast) 

Brass (English plate) 

Brass (sheet) 

Brick (best stock) 
Bronze (Baileys) 
Copper, 17 
Tin 2K . 

Zinc 1 J 

Zinc 

Cement, Roman Dry 

" Portland, pure 

" " with sand 

Concrete, cement, pebbles 

Copper 

Ebonite 

Glass, English flint 

French " 

" white, free from lead 

" blown 

" thermometer 

" _ hard 

Granite, grey, dry 

red " 

Gold, pure 

Iridium, pure 

Iron, wrought 

" Swedish 

" cast 

" soft 

Lead 

Marble, moist 

dry 

" white, Sicilian, dry 

" black, Galway 

" Carrara 

Masonry, brick, in cement, headers. . 
" " " " stretchers 

Nickel 

Pewter 

Plaster, white 

Platinum 

Platinum, 90% Iridium 10% 

" . 85% " 15% 

Porcelain 

Silver, pure 

Slate 

Steel, cast 

" tempered 

Stone,sandstone, drv. 

" « RauviUe 

« Caen 

Tin 

Wood, pine 

Zinc 8%-Tin 1 



Length = 1 
.00001234 
. 00000627 
. 00000975 
.00000957 
. 00001052 
.00001040 
.00000310 

. 00000986 

. 00000975 
. 00000797 
. 00000594 
. 00000656 
. 00000795 
. 00000887 
. 00004278 
.00000451 
. 00000484 
. 00000492 
. 00000498 
. 00000499 
. 00000397 
. 00000438 
. 00000498 
. 00000786 
. 00000356 
.00000648 
. 00000636 
. 00000556 
. 00000626 
.00001571 
. 00000663 
. 00000363 
. 00000786 
. 00000308 
.00000471 
. 00000494 
. 00000256 
.00000695 
.00001129 
. 00000922 
. 00000479 
. 00000476 
. 00000453 
.00000200 
.00001079 
.00000577 
.00000636 
.00000689 
.00000652 
.00000417 
.00000494 
.00001163 
.00000276 
.00001496 



Length = 1 
.00002221 
.00001129 
.00001755 
.00001722 
.00001894 
.00001872 
. 00000550 

.00001774 

.00001755 
.00001435 
.00001070 
.00001180 
.00001430 
.00001596 
.00007700 
.00000812 
.00000872 
.00000886 
.00000896 
.00000897 
.00000714 
. 00000789 
. 00000897 
.00001415 
. 00000641 
.00001166 
.00001145 
.00001001 
.00001126 
. 00002828 
.00001193 
. 00000654 
.00001415 
. 00000554 
. 00000848 
. 00000890 
. 00000460 
.00001215 
. 00002033 
.00001660 
. 00000863 
. 00000857 
.00000815 
. 00000360 
.00001943 
.00001038 
.00001144 
.00001240 
.00001174 
. 00000750 
.00000890 
.00002094 
.00000496 
. 00002692 



HELIOS 



15 



The rate at which the hot body may radiate or at which the colder 
body may receive heat, depends upon the surfaces, as well as upon their 
temperatures. Dark rough surfaces will both radiate and absorb heat 
at a higher rate than if they are smooth, especially so if polished. A 
hot body will radiate the same quantity of heat that it can absorb under 
the same conditions. 

If a body having a polished surface is struck by a ray of heat, part 
of the ray becomes absorbed and the rest is reflected. Therefore the 
reflecting power of any body is the complement of its absorbing power, 
as well as of its radiating power. The co-efficient of radiation, as estab- 
lished by Peclet, gives the number of heat units emitted per hour, per 
sq. ft. of surface for each 1°F. difference of temperature, or the number 
of calories emitted per hour, per sq. meter for each 1°C. difference of tem- 
perature, as shown by table No. 8. 

Table No. 8 



CO-EFFICIENTS OF RADIATION. 



Surface. 

Silver, polished 

Copper, " 

Tin _ " 

Tinned iron " 

Iron sheet " 

Iron, ordinary 

Glass 

Cast iron, new 

" " rusted 

Sawdust 

Sand, fine 

Water 

Oil 



B. T. U. per 1°F. 


Calories per 1°C. 


per sq. ft. per hour. 


per sq. meter per 
hour. 


i .02657 


.13 


1 .03270 


.16 


.04395 


.22 


.08585 


.42 


.0920 


.45 


.5662 


2.77 


.5948 


2,91 


.6480 


3.17 


.6868 


3.36 


.7215 


3.53 


.7400 


3.62 


1 . 0853 


5.31 


! 1 . 4800 


7.24 



The above co-efficients of radiation are practically correct for cases 
where differences of temperature do not amount to 10° or more. When, 
however, there is a difference of temperature of 10° and upwards between 
the heated body and the surrounding substances, the rate becomes greater, 
and when calculating the number of heat units, which will be radiated 
from a given area and material, the result should first be calculated by 
the co-efficients in the above table, and the value thus obtained, be mul- 
tiplied by the proper ratio, which will be found in the table No. 9. 



The views of Heine Boiler plants shown herein illustrate very forcibly, 
the wide variety of interests to which these boilers are applicable. It is 
impractvcable to give examples of all, as there are too many different lines 
of industry using them. 




PILLSBURY FLOUR MILLS ("A" MILL), MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 
CONTAINS 2500 H. P. OF HEINE BOILERS. 



HELIOS 



17 



Table No. 9 
RATIO OF INCREASE IN RADIATION. 



DifF. in Temp. 


Ratio 


DifF. in Temp. 


R 


itio 


Diff. in Temp. 


Ratio 


Degrees 


F. 


C. 


Degrees 


F. 


C, 


Degrees 


F. 


10 


1.15 
1.18 
1.20 
1.23 
1.25 
1.27 
1.32 
1.35 
1.38 
1.40 
1.44 
1.47 
1.50 
1.54 
1.57 


1.16 
1.21 
1.25 
1.30 
1.36 
1.42 
1.48 
1.54 
1.60 
1.68 
1.75 
1.83 
1.90 
2.00 
2.09 


160 

170 


1.61 
1.65 
1.68 
1.73 

1.78 
1.82 
1.86 
1.90 
1.95 
2.00 
2.05 
2.10 
2.16 
2.21 
2.27 


2.20 
2.31 

2.42 
2.54 
2.66 
2.79 
2.93 
3.07 
3.23 


310 


2.34 


20 


320 


2.40 


30 


180 


330 


2.47 


40 


190 


340 


2.54 


50 


200 


350 

360 


2.60 


60 


210 


2.68 


70 

80 

90 

100 


220 

230 

240 

250 


370 

380 

390 

400 


2.77 
2.84 
2.93 
3.02 


110 


260 

270 

280 

290 

300 


410.. 


3.10 


120 


420 


3.20 


130 


430 

440 


3 30 


140 


3.40 


150 


450 


3.50 



The relative radiating or absorbing and reflecting power of various 
Substances is shown in table No. 10. 



Table No. 10 
HEAT RADIATING, ABSORBING AND REFLECTING POWERS. 



Substance. 



Absorbing or 


Reflecting 


radiating power. 


power. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


100 





100 





100 





98 


2 


93 to 98 


7 to 2 


90 


10 


85 


15 


72 


28 


27 


73 


25 


75 


23 


77 


23 


77 


19 


81 


17 


83 


24 


76 


17 


83 


15 


85 


11 


89 


7 


93 


14 


86 


7 


93 


5 


95 


5 


95 


3 


97 


3 


97 



Lampblack 

Water 

Carbonate of lead 

Writing paper 

Ivory, jet, marble 

Ordinary glass 

Ice 

Gum lac 

Silverleaf on glass 

Cast iron, bright, polished 

Mercury, about 

Wrought iron, polished. . . 

Zinc, polished 

Steel, polished 

Platinum, polished 

" in sheet 

Tin 

Brass, cut, dead polish. . . 
Brass, bright, polished. . . . 

Copper, varnished 

Copper, hammered 

Gold 

Gold, plated 

" on polished steel. . . 
Silver, polished . 



18 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



Table No. 11 shows results on the radiating power of cast iron when 
finished in different ways, both in clean condition and oiled, from which 
it will be seen that while oiling appears to produce no effect upon rough 
surfaces, it more than doubles the radiation from any finished surface. 



Table No. 11 

RADIATING POWER OF CAST IRON. 





Surface 


Oiled 


Dry 


Rough 




100 
60 

49 
45 


100 


Planed 


32 


Drawfiled 


20 


Polished 


18 







CONDUCTION OF HEAT. 



Conduction is the progress of heat between two bodies, which are in 
constant contact with each other. 

Internal conduction is the transference of heat within a body from 
one particle to another; for example, when heat is applied to one side of 
a plate of metal, its passage through the metal to the other side may 
be termed "internal conduction." 

External conduction may be defined as the transfer of heat between 
two separated bodies, placed in contact with each other. 

The rate of conduction is, of course, proportional to the area of the 
section through which it takes place and may be expressed in B. T. U. 
per sq. ft. per hour. 

Internal conduction varies with the heat conductivity of the par- 
ticular substance under consideration. It is, however, directly propor- 
tional to the difference between the temperatures of the two surfaces of 
a layer and inversely as its thickness. Table No. 12 gives the co-efficients 
of heat transmission in both British and Metric systems. These co- 
efficients are established for a difference of 1°F. at about 200°F., and 
although they vary somewhat with the temperature are sufficiently 
accurate for ordinary use. 

External conduction taking place between the surface of a solid and 
a liquid is also approximately proportional to the difference of tempera- 
tures. When such difference of temperatures is considerable the rate of 
conduction increases faster than the simple ratio of that difference. 
(Rankine.) 



HELIOS 



19 



Table No. 12 
CO-EFFICIENTS OF HEAT TRANSMISSION. 





Substance 


Metric 


British 


Aluminum 


.00036 

.0004 

. 00025 

. 00028 

.00072 

.00009 

.00016 

. 00008 

. 00002 

.00006 

.00011 

.00109 

.00015 

. 00030 


. 00203 


Antimony 

Brass, yellow 

Brass, red 

Conner 


.00022 
.00142 
.00157 
. C0404 


German silver 


.00050 


Iron 


. 00089 


Lead 


.00045 


Mercury 


.00011 


Steel, hard 

Steel, soft • 


.00034 
.00062 


Silver 


.00610 


Tin 


. 00084 


Zinc 


.00170 



CONVECTION. 

Convection means "to carry", and in this restricted sense means 
the "mode by which heat is propagated through a liquid by the portion 
heated becoming lighter and ascending to the surface, its place bemg 
taken by a colder portion descending." The conduction of heat through 
a stagnant mass is very slow in liquids and nearly inappreciable in gases, 
and it is only by the continual circulation and mixture that uniformity 
of temperature can be maintained in fluids or any transfer of heat occur 
between the containing solid and the fluid. In the case of the transfer 
of heat from one fluid to another through an intervening solid body, the 
free circulation of both of the fluids is necessary, and the transfer is often 
increased by having such circulation take place in opposite directions. 

SPECIFIC HEAT. 



The heat absorbing capacity of substances varies greatly, and may 
be defined as the quantity of heat required to be absorbed to raise their 
temperature 1°. This is sometimes called the "thermal capacity", and 
in order to compare the relative heat capacities of different bodies it is 
necessary to refer all to the same base. For this base the quantity of 
heat required to raise a pound of water one degree at its point of greatest 
density, has been selected and its value is stated at 1.000 (unity). 

The ratio of the heat required to raise a pound of any body or sub- 
stance one degree, to that of water (1.0) is called the "specific heat of the 
substance", or the "co-efficient of thermal capacity." 



20 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



The specific heat of all bodies gradually increases as the tempera- 
ture rises, and as given in tables No. 13, 14, 15, means the specific heat 
at customary working temperatures, and "mean specific heat" is the 
average value of this quantity between temperatures stated. The actual 
specific heats often vary greatly, as given by different authorities, prob- 
ably from the fact that the determinations have been made at different 
temperatures. 

The tables giving the specific heat of various substances have been 
collected from many sources, and may be found useful in many calcula- 
tions. 

Table No. 13 

SPECIFIC HEATOF SOLIDS. 



Substance 



Co- 
efficient 



Substance 



Co- 
efficient 



Anthracite coal 
Antimony 



Aluminum 



Bismuth 

Brickwork, about 

Brass 

Cadmium 

Chalk 

Charcoal 



Coal 



Coke 

Copper 

(from 32°-212°F) 
( " " 572°F) 

Corundum 

Diamond 

Fir wood 



Glass 

Gold 

Graphite 

Natural Graphite 

Ice 

Iridium 

Iron wrought 

" " (32°-212°F) 

u ti a QQ9° " 

ti u u p;79° " 

« ii u fifi9° " 

" 200° " ' 
" 600° " . 
" 2000° " . 



.2017 

. 0508 

.2134 

.2181 

.2185 

.3080 

.20 

.0939 

.0567 

.2410 

.2415 

.20 

.241 

.2777 

.2031 

.0951 

.094 

.1013 

.198 

.1469 

.651 

.1977 

.1937 

.0323 

.2008 

.202 

.2019 

.504 

.0326 

.1138 

.1098 

.115 

,1218 

,1255 

,1129 

,1327 

,2619 



Lime Sulphate 

Lead " 

Magnesia 

Magnesian Limestone 

Magnesium 

Manganese 

Marble 



Mercury, solid . 
" liquid 

Nickel 

Oak wood 

Pine " 

Pear " 

Phosphorus . . . 

Porcelain 

Platinum 



Quartz 

Quicklime . . . 
Sand (river) . 

Silica 

Silver 

Soda 

Steel (hard).. 
" (soft) . . 

Sulphur 

Stones (gene) 

Tin 

Zinc 



(32°-446°F) 



.1966 

.0872 

.0314 

.222 

.217 

.2174 

.2499 

.1217 

.2100 

.2129 

.0314 

.0333 

.1086 

.570 

.467 

.500 

. 1887 

.2503 

.1980 

.0324 

. 3333 

.1880 

.2169 

.1950 

.1910 

.057 

.2311 

.1175 

.1165 

.1777 

. 2028 

.20 

.0562 

.0956 



Note: — Where more than one number is given, it signifies that authorities differ. 



HELIOS 



21 



Table No. 14 
SPECIFIC HEAT OF LIQUIDS. 



Liquids 


Co-efficient 


Liquids 


Co-efficient 


Acetic acid 


.6590 
.6150 
.7000 
.3932 
.4500 
.0308 
1.1110 
.5030 
.5034 
.5640 
.6000 
. 5550 
.0402 
.0333 


Olive Oil 


3096 


Alcohol 

" absolute 


Sulphuric Acid 

" t. density 1.87 

" 1.30 

Sulphur (melted) 


.3350 
3430 


Benzine 


3346 


u 


6614 


Bismuth (melted) 

Bromine 


.2340 
0637 


Ether 


Turpentine (oil) 

Vinegar 


.4260 
.4720 


Fusil bil 


Water at 32°F 


1 0000 


Hydrochloric acid 

Glycerine 


" 212°F 

« 32°-212°F (Mean).. 
Wood Spirits .... 


1.0130 
1 . 0050 


Lead (melted) 


.6009 


Mercurv 











Table No. 15 

SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASES. 



Gases 



Co-efficient 


Constant 


Constant 


Pressure 


Volume 


.2376 


. 16847 


.4125 




.4534 


.3200 


.508 


.299 


.2277 




.217 


.1535 


.2025 




.2163 




.2450 




.2479 


. 1758 


.2884 




.1210 




.1567 




.4797 


.3411 


3 . 2936 




3 . 4090 


2.41226 


.2438 




.2754 




.2369 




.2175 


.15507 


.2361 




.4040 


.173 


.4805 




.4805 


.3460 


.1553 


.1246 



Air 

Acetic Acid 

Alcohol 

Ammonia 

Blast Furnace 

Carbonic Acid 

" Allyrlde .'.'.". 

" Oxide 

II (I 

a a 

Chlorine. 

Chloroform 

Ether 

Hydrogen 

II 

Nitrogen- 

a 

Nitrou.s Acid 

Oxvgen 

Olefiant 

Steam 

Steam, superheated 
Sulphurous Acid . . . 




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HELIOS 23 



TEMPERATURE. 



Temperature is the word used to describe the condition of a body 
as regards heat or cold, or the relation of a body to the heat it may con- 
tain, as shown by its greater or less tendency to part with such heat. 

Temperature is also a measure of molecular motion, and the more 
violent or rapid such motions become, the higher the temperatures become. 

Temperature has no connection with and gives no information about 
the amount of heat in a body. If a hot body be placed in contact with a 
colder body, it gives up part of its heat to the colder body, until both be- 
come of the same temperature, thus proving that heat may be trans- 
ferred from one body to another as already stated, but if the originally 
hotter body be larger or if it possesses a greater capacity for heat than 
the originally colder body, it will still contain, when both bodies have 
become of the same temperature, a very much larger quantity of heat, 
as stated in B. T. U., than the smaller one. 

Temperatures are measured by arbitrary scales based upon the 
familiar phenomena of the melting of ice and boiling of water. At sea 
level where the atmospheric pressure is approximately 14.7 lbs. per sq. 
in., which is equivalent to 29.922 inches of mercury as measured by the 
barometer, these physical changes in the state of water always occur at 
the same temperature. There are several "scales of temperature" in 
more or less common use. 

For measuring temperatures up to about 1000°F., mercury is the 
most frequently used, as seen in the ordinary thermometers, which are 
made in varying degrees of accuracy and range. Mercury is particu- 
larly well adapted for use in thermometers on account of its high boilLng 
and its low freezing temperatures, and its high co-efficient of expansion. 

For temperatures ranging up to about 500°F., the tube or space 
above the bulb of a thermometer is a vacuum. For higher temperatures 
up to 1000°F., this space is filled with nitrogen gas under pressure. 

There are three well-known scales for mercurial thermometers, two 
of which, Fahrenheit and Centigrade, are in common every day use, 
while the third, Reaumer, is practically discarded. Tables Nos. 16, and 
17 show the relation of the first two. 



It is possible to thoroughly explore the whole of the gas passages of a 
Heine Boiler through the hollow stay holts and to ascertain the temperature 
at any point. These staybolts also 7nake it possible to be sure, by inspection, 
that these passages are clean. The cleaning is done through these staybolts, 
at any time, while under full load or when shut down. See pages 156, 163. 



24 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



Table No. 16 
COMPARISON OF THE FAHRENHEIT AND CENTIGRADE THERMOMETRIC SCALES. 



F 


C 


F 


C 


-459.6 


-273.1111 


190.0 


87.7778 


- 20.0 


- 28.8889 


200.0 


93.3333 


- 10.0 


- 23.3333 


210.0 


98.8889 


0.0 
+ 10.0 


- 17.7778 

- 12.2222 


Boiling Uj^ 
Point /-•^-•^^ 


100.0000 


20.0 


- 6.6667 


220 


104.4444 


30.0 


- I.IIU 


230 


110.0000 


F^^e.i„g|3,„ 


0.0 


240 


115.5555 


250 


121.1111 


40.0 


+ 4 . 4444 


260 


126.6667 


50.0 


10.0000 


270 


132.2222 


60.0 


15.5555 


280 


137.7778 


70.0 


21.1111 


290 


143.3333 


80.0 


26.6667 . 


300 


148.8889 


90.0 


32.2222 


310 


154.4444 • 


100.0 


37.7778 


320 


160.0000 


110.0 


43.3333 


330 


165.5555 


120.0 


48.8889 


340 


171.1111 


130.0 


54.4444 


350 


176.6667 


140.0 


60.0000 


360 


182.2222 


150.0 


65.5555 


370 


187.7778 


160.0 


71.1111 


380 


193.3333 


170.0 


76.6667 


390 


198.8889 


180.0 


82.2222 


400 


204.4444 



Table No. 17 

COMPARISON OF THE CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT THERMOMETRIC SCALES. 





c 


F 


C 


F 




-273.1 


356.0 


190.0 


374.0 




- 20.0 


-459.6 


200.0 


392.0 




- 10.0 


- 4.0 


210.0 


410.0 




0.0 


+ 14.0 


220.0 


428.0 




+ 10.0 


32.0 


230.0 


446.0 




20.0 


50.0 


240.0 


464.0 




30.0 


68.0 


250.0 


482.0 




40.0 


86.0 


260.0 


500.0 




50.0 


104.0 


270.0 


518.0 




60.0 


122.0 


280.0 


536.0 




70.0 


140.0 


290.0 


554.0 




80.0 


158.0 


300.0 


572.0 




90.0 


176.0 


310.0 


590.0 




100.0 


194.0 


.320.0 


608.0 




110.0 


212.0 


330.0 


626.0 




120.0 


230,0 


! 340 . 


644.0 




130.0 


248.0 


1 350.0 


662.0 




140.0 


266.0 


'• 360.0 


680.0 




150.0 


284.0 


370.0 


698.0 




160.0 


302.0 


380.0 


716.0 




170.0 


320.0 


390.0 


734.0 




180.0 


3.38 . 


1 400.0 


752.0 



FORMULAE FOR REDUCING FROM ONE THERMOMETRIC SCALE TO ANY OTHER. 



F = f C+32° =fR+32° 
C=| (F-32°) =|R 
R=* C =|(F-32°) 



F = degrees Fahrenheit 
C= " Centigrade 

R= " Reaumer 



HELIOS 



2.'^ 



PRACTICAL PYROMETRY. 

"Many scales for the measurement of high temperatures have been 
proposed, but the gas scale is the one now universally adopted. All 
readings obtained by any type of heat measuring instruments are reduced 
to temperatures on the gas scale. The gas scale has been adopted as the 
standard scale of temperature, firstly, because gas of the same purity 
can be produced at any time; secondly, the expansion of gas, which de- 
fines the scale of temperature, is sufficiently fine for accurate measure- 
ment; thirdly, the scale is practically identical with the thermodynamic 
scale. The mercurial thermometer also conforms to this scale quite 
accurately. 




ANSONIA BRASS AND COPPER CO. BRASS MILL, ANSONIA, CONN. 
THREE 250 H. P. HEINE BOILERS. 



26 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



Thermometers and pyrometers are generally standardized by means 
of fixed points of fusion and ebullition determined by gas thermometers. 

Following is a list of the high temperature measuring devices gen- 
erally used, with a statement of their approximate limitations: 



TYPES OF PYROMETERS IN GENERAL USE. 



Thermometer 


Character 


Type 


Range in degrees C 

over which they can 

be used. 


Expansion 


Those depending up- 
on changes in volume 
or length by tempera- 
ture. 


Gas 

Mercury, Jena glass 
and nitrogen 

Glass and spirit or 
petrol 

Unequal expansion 
of metal rods 

Contraction of por- 
celain. 


0° to 1000° 

- 40° to 500° 

-200° to -40° 

0°to 500° 

0° to 1800° 


Transpiration 
and Vicoslty. 


Those depending on 
the flow of gases through 
capillary tubes or small 
apertures. 


The Uehling. 


0° to 1000° 


Thermo-elec- 
tric. 


Those depending on 
the electromotive force 
developed by the dif- 
ference in temperature 
of two similar thermo- 
electric junctions oppos- 
ed to one another. 


Galvanometric 
Potentiometric 


0° to 1600° 


Electric resis- 
tance. 


Those utilizing the 
increase in electric re- 
sistance of a wire by 
temperature. 


Direct reading on 
Indicator or bridge of 
galvanometer. 


0° to 1200'' 


Radiation 


Those depending on 
heat radiated by hot 
bodies. 


Thermo-couple in fo- 
cus of mirror bolo- 
meter. 


0° to 10,000° 


Optical 


Those utilizing the 
change in the bright- 
ness or in the wave 
length of the light emit- 
ted by an incandescent 
body. 

Those depending on 
the specific heat of a 
body raised to a high 
temp. 


Photometric com- 
parison 

Incandescent fila- 
ment in telescope. 

Nickel and quartz 
plate and analyzer. 


0° to 2000° 


Calorimeter 


Copper or platinurh 
ball with water vessel. 


0° to 1500° 


Fusion. 


Those depending upon 
the unequal fusibility 
of various metals or 
earthern-ware blocks of 
various composition. 


Alloys of various 
fusibilities. 


0° to 1988° 



The color of many highly heated substances is some indication of the 
temperature, but results obtained by this method are unsatisfactory 
except for rough estimation, as the susceptibility of the observer's eye 



HELIOS 



and the surrounding illumination are sources of considerable error. Table 
No. 18 gives a schedule for judging temperatures in this way. 



Table No. 18 
POUILLET COLOR SCHEDULE. 



Appearance 




F 



Incipient red heat.. 

Dull " " 

Incipient red cherry heat. 

Red cherry heat 

Clear red cherr}^ heat 

Deep orange heat 

Clear " " 

White " " 

Bright white heat 

Dazzling 



977° 
1292° 
1472° 
1652° 
1832° 
2012° 
2192° 
2372° 
2452° 
2732° 
2912° 



The comparatively recent development and perfection of the various 
heat measuring devices employing thermo-couples and of the radiation 
thermometers, has resulted in considerable changes in what have here- 
tofore been considered the true temperatures of many metallurgical 
processes, which are now found to take place at lower temperatures than 
have long been considered accurate. A continued use of these more 
reliable means will inevitably result in the remodeling of the various 
tables which have been published and accepted for many years, giving 
the melting points of various metals and alloys. 




KELLY AXE MFG. CO., CHARLESTON, W. VA. 
CONTAINS, 2400 H. P. OF HEINE BOILERS. 







1 , /O 






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HELIOS 29 



COMBUSTION. 

TH E commonly accepted use of the word combustion refers 
simply to a process of burning, whereby any material or any 
part of it unites with the oxygen of the air, with the accom- 
paniment of either light or heat or both. To speak of a substance there- 
fore as a combustible means that it is susceptible of rapidly combining 
with oxygen so as to product either light or heat or both, while the 
oxygen of the air may be classed as a supporter of such combustion. 

Carbon — Carbon is one of the most widely distributed and easily 
obtained of any of nature's combustible substances, and it is because 
of its abundance and presence in coal, wood, peat, mineral oil and natural 
gases that these substances are used almost exclusively as fuel. Carbon 
itself is a non-volatile solid substance and exists in three distinct and 
apparently different states; first, as it is found in the diamond, second, in 
the shape of plumbago or graphite and third, as charcoal or lamp black. 
Among natural fuels, anthracite coal is almost pure carbon, and may 
be classed as between charcoal and graphite. 

Hydrogen — Hydrogen is a light, colorless gas, the lightest of 
all known substances being about one sixteenth as heavy as oxygen. Its 
specific gravity is .0692, it weighs .0895 ounces per cubic foot, and one 
pound will occupy 178.83 cubic feet at 32°F. and under a pressure of one 
atmosphere. 

Oxygen — Oxygen which we have described above as being the 
supporter of combustion, while one of the most common of all natural 
substances, is never found by itself in nature; in atmospheric air 
it is associated with the gas nitrogen, and in water oxygen exists in com- 
bination with hydrogen. Air is normally composed of oxygen and nitro- 
gen in the following proportions: 

By volume, Oxygen 0.213 parts 

Nitrogen 0.787 parts 

and by weight, Oxygen ... 0.236 parts 

Nitrogen 0.764 parts 

However, the above proportions are disturbed when vapor, carbonic 
acid and other impurities are present. Unless accuracy is desired it is 
usually correct enough to consider that atmospheric air is composed of 
one volume of oxygen and four volumes of nitrogen. The combination 
of oxygen and nitrogen as air is merely a mechanical mixture of the two 
and the oxygen is therefore free to leave the nitrogen at any moment, 
combine with any other substance with which it may be in contact and 



30 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

for which it has an affinity and if the conditions are favorable this com- 
bining process may take place with great speed and vigor. When isolated, 
oxygen is a colorless gas, tasteless and slightly heavier than air, its spe- 
cific gravity being 1.1056, air being 1.00; its weight per cubic foot is 1.428 
ounces, and one pound will occupy 11.205 cubic feet at 32°F. under a 
pressure of one atmosphere. 

THE ATOMIC THEORY. 

In order to obtain a clear comprehension of the varied and numer- 
ous chemical changes involved in the phenomena of combustion it is 
desirable to have some knowledge of the atomic theory.. 

This theory is the one generally accepted as governing all chemical 
combinations and has been developed through experiments and investi- 
gations extending over very many years. 

It has been found that when two elementary substances combine 
chemically they do so in a definite and invariable proportion. For in- 
stance if oxygen and hydrogen are mixed and caused to form water they 
will so combine only in the exact proportion of two volumes of hydrogen 
for each volume of oxygen. Two volumes of hydrogen cannot be made 
to combine chemically with one and one-half volumes of oxygen to form 
the compound water, but the hydrogen will combine only with its pro- 
portionate quantity of oxygen, leaving the extra one-half volume entirely 
undisturbed. 

Experiment has also proven that after two volumes of hydrogen have 
combined with one volume of oxygen and if the temperature is such as 
to retain the resultant compound water in its gaseous state it will occupy 
only the space of two volumes, although three volumes of the gases have 
been used in its production. We may reasonably suppose therefore that 
if the smallest conceivable particle of oxygen be caused to unite with 
two of the smallest particles of hydrogen the same result will follow and 
a very minute particle of water will be formed. These minute particles, 
the smallest in which substances may be conceived to enter into com- 
bination with each other, are called atoms and the individual particles 
resulting from the combination are known as molecules. It is therefore 
reasoned that equal volumes of the elementary gases contain the same 
number of atoms, and that therefore these atoms are of equal size. 

Alphabetical characters or letters, usually the initial letter of the 
name_, have been adopted as designating symbols for the various ele- 
ments, followed when necessary for distinction, by other letters. Thus 
hydrogen is designated by the capital letter "H" and oxygen by the cap- 



HELIOS 31 

ital letter "O". Water therefore being a chemical union of two atoms 
of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen is always represented as H2O. The 
suffix 2 being employed to state the fact that there is twice as much hydro- 
gen, by volume, as there is oxygen. 

Having assumed as above stated that the atoms of all elementary 
substances are of the same size, the determination of the relative weights 
of equal volumes of the two gases is equivalent to determining the rela- 
tive weights of the atoms themselves; that is, their atomic weights. 
Hydrogen being the lightest of all known substances its weight is 
taken as unity, the relative weight of oxygen being 16, that is any 
given volume of oxygen weighs 16 times as much as an equal volume of 
hydrogen. We therefore find the further fact as to the composition of 
water, that two atoms of hydrogen weighing 2 X 1 = 2, combine with 
one atom of oxygen weighing 16. In other words, by weight, water is 
composed of two parts of hydrogen and 16 parts of oxygen, or that com- 
bination is in the ratio of one hydrogen to eight oxygen. We have al- 
ready shown that the two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen 
when united occupy only two volumes, which is the same as was occu- 
pied originally by the hydrogen, hence the compound now weighing 
eighteen occupies the same space as the original amount of hydrogen 
weighing two, and its relative density is therefore, -^=9, or gaseous 
water of given temperature and pressure weighs nine times as much as 
an equal volume of hydrogen under the same conditions. 

We give below a table showing the symbols and atomic weights of 
several of the comm.on elementary substances. 

Hydrogen H 1 

Carbon C 12 

Nitrogen N 14 

Oxygen O 16 

Sulphur S 32 

Combination of Carbon and Oxygen — A few of the elements 
may combine chemically with each other in more than one propor- 
tion. This is true of carbon and oxygen; for instance a quantity 
of carbon heated to incandescence and placed in a sufficient volume of 
oxygen will unite with it, each atom of carbon combining with two atoms 
of oxygen forming a compound formerly known as carbonic acid, but now 
universally termed carbon dioxide, the symbol of which is CO2. The 
process is indicated by the formula C+20 = C02, and no matter how large 
the supply of oxygen may be it cannot be made to combine with a greater 
proportion of carbon. Therefore this gas, carbon dioxide, is evidently 
the product of complete combustion, there having been present a surplus 




THREE 350 H. P. HEINE BOILERS, BURNING FUEL OIL, 
METROPOLITAN LAUNDRY, SAN FRANCISCO. 



HELIOS 



33 



of oxygen. As shown by the list above, a single atom of carbon weighs 
12, and a single atom of oxygen weighs 10, therefore the compound, 
carbon dioxide, consists of, by weight, 12 parts of carbon and 2 X 1(3 = 32 
parts of oxygen. 

Carbon dioxide gas is transparent and colorless; its specific gravity 
1.529, being about one and one-half times heavier than air. It has a 
slightly acid taste and smell and being the product of complete combus- 
tion is of course incombustible. It is therefore neither a supporter of 
animal life nor of combustion, although it is not directly poisonous. 

If, however, this carbon dioxide gas without the presence of sufficient 
oxygen is brought into contact with more carbon heated to incandes- 
cence it will give up one half of its oxygen, each atom of which being re- 
leased at once unites with an atom of carbon from the second mass, form- 
ing a new compound known as carbon monoxide, of which gas the symbol 
is CO. The process is symbolically expressed as follows: C02+C = 2CO, 
showing that not only is the new compound formed by the carbon with 
the released oxygen, but that the carbon dioxide being deprived of part 
of its oxygen is thereby also reduced to carbon monoxide. The relative 
weight of this combination is evidently 12+16 = 28. 

Carbon monoxide gas has a specific gravity of 0.9674, being slightly 
lighter than air. It is transparent, colorless, and almost without odor, 
is destructive to animal life, being a direct poison. It is not a supporter 
of combustion, but being already the product of imperfect combustion, 
it is in itself a combustible, and may be readily burned in air. This can 
be demonstrated by experiment and the product will be found to be 
carbon dioxide identically the same compound already shown to be the 
result of complete combustion. Symbolically the process is expressed 
thus, C0+0 = C02. 

Table No. 19 shows the properties of the two gases. 

Table No. 19 



Name 


Symbol 


Carbon 


Oxygen Total 


Percentage 
Carbon | Oxygen 


Total 


Carbon Monoxide . . CO 
Carbon Dioxide. . . . CO2 


12 
12 


16 
32 


28 
44 


42.86 
27.27 


57.14 
72 . 73 


100 
100 



THE BURNING OF FUEL. 



The two elements which contribute most largely to the heat value 
of any fuel are the carbon and the hydrogen. These two may be either 



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HELIOS 35 

combined in the fuel naturally or when heat is applied associate them- 
selves together in a number of complex compounds called hydro-carbons. 

These compounds are very numerous, the simplest of them all being 
what is commonly known as marsh gas, the symbol for which is CH4. 
Such of the carbon or hydrogen as does not thus enter into combination 
is designated as fixed. 

Besides these more valuable constituents, fuels usually also contain 
small amounts of oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen, together with some incom- 
bustible matter, such as minerals or earthy matters, which remain as 
ash. The process of the combustion of ordinary fuel is therefore a much 
more complex operation than the combustion of carbon alone, which we 
have just described. 

Table No. 23 (page 49) gives the average relative composition by 
weight of a number of fuels, as determined by analysis. For the general 
purposes of comparison of different fuels the proximate analysis giving 
only the relative percentages of fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture 
and ash, is sufficiently close. 

We can no more than outline the actual process of combustion of 
any fuel as the conditions under which the burning takes place make it 
absolutely impossible to state the actual order in which the various pro- 
cesses occur. 

If, for instance, bituminous coal is thrown upon a glowing fire com- 
posed of incandescent carbon, the heat will volatilize and free the hydro- 
carbons at comparatively low temperatures and these inflammable gases 
are immediately burned and by their heat assist in bringing the balance 
of the coal up to the temperature of incandescence. During the burning 
of the hydro-carbon gases the various combinations are broken up and 
simpler combinations are formed. If there is sufficient oxygen present 
the carbon unites with it and forms carbon dioxide, the hydrogen also 
unites with oxygen and forms water in a gaseous state. Now, if a portion 
of the carbon which has been liberated in the shape of incandescent par- 
ticles from the hydro-carbon gases does not at once meet with sufficient 
oxygen, it is liable to cool so that if it subsequently does meet with oxygen 
its temperature may be too low to permit of their chemical combination. 
It will therefore pass off still unconsumed and visible in the form of smoke. 
By the time all of the hydro-carbons have been expelled from the coal 
and either burned or driven off unconsumed, the remainder of the coal 
will have become heated to incandescence and the carbon in it will then 
readily combine, either with the oxygen from the air or with carbon diox- 
ide which may be present. If plenty of oxygen is present the product of 
the union will be carbon dioxide. If however, there is insufficient oxygen 



HELIOS 



37 



or air present, the incandescent carbon will seize upon part of the oxygen 
in the carbon dioxide gas present with a resultant of carbon monoxide 
gas, or incomplete combustion. If the gas thus formed should subse- 
quently be brought into contact with air it would take therefrom oxygen 
and burn to carbon dioxide, provided the temperature is sufficiently high. 

HEAT OF COMBUSTION. 

Table No. 20 shows the heat of combustion, in oxygen, of one 
pound of each of the substances named, in British Thermal Units. It 
also shows the weight of oxygen required to combine with each pound 
of combustible and the weight of air necessary to supply that oxygen. 





Table 


No. 20 








Pounds 
Oxygen 


Pounds 

Air 


British 
Thermal 

Units. 


Theoretical 

Evaporation 

f. & at 212°F. 


Hydrogen Gas 

Carbon imperfectly burned 

into Carbon Monoxide. . . 
Carbon perfectly burned 

into Carbon Dioxide 

defiant Gas 


8 

1.33 

2.66 
3.43 

. 643 


36 

6 

12 
15.43 

2.571 


62,032 

4,400 

14,500 
21,344 
From 
21,700 

to 
19,000 

4,286 


64.2 
4.55 

15.00 

22.1 


Various Liquid Hydro Car- 
bons 


From 
22.5 


Carbon Monoxide 


to 
20.0 
4.48 



Note that the imperfect burning of carbon into carbon monoxide 
yields less than one third the heat it would had it burned completely into 
carbon dioxide. Here undoubtedly occurs the greatest furnace loss 
rather than in the smoke, and indeed the chimney may be perfectly 
clean and unobjectionable. An analysis from a boiler whose chimney is 
belching forth intensely black smoke may show a minimum of carbon 
monoxide and maximum of carbon dioxide, the loss being merely that 
due to the incomplete combustion of a very small percentage of solid car- 
bon carried off with the gases. 

The total heat of combustion from any hydrogen and carbon com- 
pound is considered to be the sum of the heat quantities which the indi- 
vidual constituents would produce if burned separately. 

When hydrogen and carbon exist in a compound in the proportion, 
by weight, of one part of hydrogen to eight parts of oxygen the combi- 
nation in combustion may be neglected in any calculation made to obtain 



38 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



the total heat generated. When, however, hydrogen exists in a greater 
proportion than above stated the surplus not combining with the oxygen 
must be taken into account. 

Dulong's formula for obtaining the total heat generated by one 
pound of fuel was used as determined originally for many years but the 
A. S. M. E. after an exhaustive discussion and investigation decided 
upon a modified Dulong formula as below. 

H=14600C+62000 (H-— ) + 4000S. 

8 

When one considers the conditions actually existing in any fire, the 
varying sizes of the coal, the number and variety of empty spaces be- 
tween them and the various stages of combustion at different parts of 
the fire, it is evident that very many great changes must take place in the 
composition of the gases, and that association and dissociation must 
follow each other very rapidly. A particle of carbon may first burn to 
carbon dioxide, meet another particle of carbon and part with one half 
of its oxygen becoming carbon monoxide and again meet with a further 
supply of oxygen and become again carbon dioxide. The combination 
in which the carbon and oxygen finally leave the furnace is dependent 
upon the temperature, quantity and places at which the oxygen is ad- 
mitted. The operation of burning coal is therefore complex and the 
conditions actually existing in any furnace must govern the manner in 
which that furnace must be operated to secure complete combustion. 

QUANTITY OF AIR REQUIRED FOR COMBUSTION. 

The symbol for water is H2O and the atomic weights are H = l and 
0=16, therefore H20=2+16 and H2:0::2: 16 = H2:0:: 1:8, therefore one 
pound of hydrogen requires eight pounds of oxygen for its complete com- 
bustion. 

Likewise the symbol of carbon dioxide is CO2, substituting the 
atomic weights we have C02=12+(2X16) and therefore C:02::l:2§; 
hence one pound of carbon requires 2f pounds of oxygen for its com- 
plete combustion. On page 29 we have shown that by weight one pound 
of atmospheric air contains 0.236 parts of oxygen, therefore it is evident 
that for the combustion of one pound of carbon we must have such an 
amount of air as will contain 2f pounds of oxygen. That is 2f-f- 
0.236 = 11.3 pounds of air. Similarly with the hydrogen 8.0 -f- 0.236 
= 33.9. Table No. 21 gives data as to oxygen, and the common com- 
bustibles, together with the pounds and cubic feet of air required for 
each, calculated in the manner just described. 



HELIOS 



39 



Table No. 21. 
COMBUSTION DATA. 



Combustible 


Atomic 
Weight 


Combustion 
Product 


Wt. ofO. 
per lb. of 
Combus- 
tible 


Am"t. of air consumed 
per lb. of combustible 


Calorific Power. Heat 

units per lb. of 

Combustible 




H=l 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Cu. Ft. 
62oF. 


B. T. U. 


Oxygen (0) 

Hydrogen 

Carbon (C) 

Carbon (C) 

Carbon Monoxide 
(CO) 


16 
1 

12 

12 

2S 
16 

28 
32 










Water (H2 0) . . 

Carbon Mon- 
oxide (CO).. 

Carbon Di- 
oxide (C 02). 

Carbon Di- 
oxide (C02). 

C02 & H2O... 

C O2 & H2O. . 
S O2 


S.O 

1.33 

2.66 

0.57 
4.00 

3.43 
1.00 


34.8 

5.8 

11.6 

2.48 
17.4 

15.0 
4.35 


457 

76 

152 

33 
229 

196 
57 


62032 
4452 

14500 
4325 


Marsh Gas(CH4) 

Olefiant Gas (C2 

H4) 

Sulphur (S) 


26383 

21290 
4032 



For insuring completeness of combustion, the first condition is a 
sufficient supply of air; the next is that the air and the fuel, solid and 
gaseous, shall be thoroughly mixed; and the third is that the elements — 
air and combustible gases — shall be brought together and maintained at 
a sufficiently high temperature. The hotter the elements the greater 
is the probability of good combustion. 

Dulong s formula for the weight of air required for the combustion of 
any fuel whose chemical composition is known is: 

W = 11.61C + 34.78 (H - — ), or approximately 



W = 12 C + 35 (H 







Where C, H and O represent the weight of carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen in the fuel and W equals the weight of air required. 

The volume (V) of air required is given by Dulong as: 

V = 152.56 C + 457.04 (H - — ), or approximately 



V= 1.53 -f 1^457 (H-— ) 

8 

Theoretically 12 pounds of air are sufficient for the complete com- 
bustion of one pound of good coal but usually considerably more air than 
this is admitted, 24 pounds of air per pound of coal being not uncommon 
with natural draft. With artificial draft the amount may be only 50 




U. S. REALTY BLDG., NEW YORK, N. Y., 
CONTAINS 1,525 H. P. OF HEINE BOILERS. 



HELIOS 



41 



per cent in excess of the chemical requirements. Table No 22 gives 
some data regarding the relation between the temperature and volume 
of gases of combustion. 



Table No. 22. 



TEMPERATURE OF COMBUSTION AND VOLUME OF PRODUCTS. 





Supply of air in lbs. per lb. of fuel 




Temperature 
of Gas, 


12 lbs. 18 lbs. 


24 lbs. 


Fahrenheit 


Volume of air or gases in cu. ft. 


at each temperature. 




32 


150 


225 


300 




68 


161 


241 


322 




104 


172 


258 


344 




212 


205 


307 


409 




392 


259 


389 


519 




572 


314 


471 


628 




752 


369 


553 


738 




1112 


479 


718 


957 




1472 


588 


882 


1176 




1832 


697 


1046 


1395 




2500 


906 


1359 


1812 




3275 


1136 


1704 






4640 


1551 









This table shows the volume, at different temperatures, of the air 
required (l) when just enough is admitted to burn C to CO2, (2) with 
50% excess, (3) with 100% excess. The table also shows the volume of 
gases of combustion at various temperatures. From this data may be 
figured the proper areas for different purposes, such as ash pit doors, 
breechings, etc. 



The ample dimensions of the combustion chamber, which is an im- 
portant feature of the setting of a Heine Boiler under any conditions and 
for all types of furnaces and stokers, meets those theoretical and practical 
requirements necessary for the attainment of the best combustion of all kinds 
of fuels; but preeminently of the long flaming solid fuels and of the gaseous 
or liquid fuels. It is practicable to install, at the lowest cost, any special 
furnace arrangement desired. On pages 167 , 168, 169 may be found some 
illustrations suggesting methods of applying various types of furnaces. 

When oil or gas is to be used any arrangement of baffle walls, checker 
work, air preheating ducts, etc., can be easily installed. The convenience 
with which changes can be made offer the investigating engineer opportunity 
to make experiments and changes very cheaply. 




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HELIOS 43 



FUELS. 

H E various substances which are used for the generation of 
heat may be divided as follows: 

Coal 

Coke 

Peat 

Tar 

Wood 

Tanbark 

Straw 

Bagasse 

Liquids of the petroleum group. 

^ / Natural Gas 

Oases ^ -D J /^ 

1^ rroducer Cras. 

By far the most common and important fuel in use is coal in its vari- 
ous stages of development. 

The use of wood as a fuel is restricted to special and peculiar processes 
as the necessary and increasing demand for its use for structural and 
other industrial purposes has nearly removed it from any consideration 
as a fuel. 

Special processes and favorable local conditions are necessary before 
any competition between either fuel oil or of gases and coal can exist. 

COAL. 

Coal is a dark brown or black mineral substance varying in specific 
gravity from 1.2 to L8. It burns with a more or less brilliant formation 
and unless under favorable circumstances its combustion is likely to be 
attended with considerable smoke. Coal is found in horizontal or in 
inclined layers, being separated by seams of clay and frequently mixed 
with iron compounds. It is found in that geological formation commonly 
known as the carboniferous and it generally lies between primary forma- 
tions called Silurian on one hand and the sand stone on the other. An- 
thracite which is the oldest variety in a geological sense, is sometimes 
found among the most recent members of the transition formations, 
while lignite or brown coal the youngest variety occurs in the chalk 
formation. 



HELIOS 45 

All coals are composed of the same chemical constituents, viz.: 
hydrogen, carbon and oxygen, and it is the varying quantities of each 
and their combinations, which cause the differing values of the several 
coals as heat producers. 

All coals are formed from prehistoric vegetable growths, fossilized 
by moisture, heat, pressure and time. The chemical and structural 
changes which have taken place therefrom, • may be roughly stated as 
follows: 

Substance Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen 

Wood Fibre 52-53% 5-55% 40-42% 

Peat 58-60% 55-60% 40-42% 

Lignite 60-62% 50-55% 34-35% 

Brown Coal 65-70% 50-55% 25-30% 

Bituminous Coal 70-85% 55-60% 18-20% 

Anthracite Coal 85-92% 4-57% 4-4l%, 

In addition to the above evidence as to the vegetable origin of coal, 
fossilized trees are found standing upright and with their roots resting 
in the seams of coal, also ferns, leaves, boughs, etc., either wholly or 
partially fossilized are found in peat bogs. 

It is stated that several hundred different species of plant life have 
been identified in and among coal formations. It is an interesting fact 
that these evidences found in the coal measures, by the comparison with 
existing forms of plant life, testify to the fact that the climate now exist- 
ing at those points is materially changed from that which existed at the 
time of their growth. All such specimens which have been found indi- 
cate that their natural habitat was in a very warm moist climate, and 
that after falling they were subjected to various changes of location due 
to internal disturbances of the earth, at times being buried under the 
water, and at other times, probably by volcanic action, elevated high 
above the water. 

These deposits vary considerably in age, and distinct species exist 
which may be distinguished from one another as well by the physical 
structure as by the chemical peculiarities. The coal which occurs above 
the chalk formation is of comparatively recent origin. This is lignite or 
brown coal, which frequently contains almost the entire structure of the 
vegetable matter from which it was formed. That lying below the chalk 
is known as bituminous coal and in it the vegetable feature has disap- 
peared excepting in isolated cases. Both differ from the anthracite or 
oldest coal, from which almost everything has disappeared excepting the 
carbon. 



46 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

Coals are roughly divided into classes or groups about as follows: 

Anthracite 

Semi-Anthracite 

Semi-Bituminous 

Bituminous 

Lignite 

These approximate distinctions, however, so merge into each other, 
that it is at times difficult to designate a class to which a particular coal 
may be assigned, and for this reason many attempts have been made to 
scientifically group or class them. These classifications have been based 
upon the preponderance of certain fuel elements in the different coals 
but without success, as the attempt has always resulted in some one or 
two glaring discrepancies. 

The U. S. G. S. however has gone into the matter of proper grouping 
or classification of coals very exhaustively. In their report on the Coal 
Testing Plant at St. Louis, "Professional Paper No. 48, Part One," using 
various elements and ratios, they find that the carbon hydrogen ratio ■^, 
while not ideally perfect, seems to fit the cases better than any others, 
and suggest for investigation and discussion the following groups, arbi- 
trarily designated by letters. 

Group A (Graphite) «= to (?) 

" B Anthracite (?) to 30 (?) 

" C " 30 (?) to 26 (?) 

" D Semi-Anthracite 26 (?) to 23 (?) 

" E " Bituminous 23 (?) to 20 (?) 

" F Bituminous 20 to 17 

" G " 17 to 14.4 

« H " 14.4 to 12.5 

" I " 12.5 to 11.2 

" J Lignite 11.2 to 9.3 (?) 

" K Peat 9.3 (?) to (?) 

« L Wood 7.2 

From this report we quote: 'Groups A, B, C, D, and E. As little 
work was done at this testing plant on anthracite coal, and as all of the 
analyses made by the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania were 
proximate analyses, little material is available for determining the 
limits of these groups and the figures given must be regarded as pro- 
visional only, and subject to change when a greater number of ultimate 
analyses have been made. 

Groups F, G, H, I. These groups embrace what generally are con- 
sidered bituminous coals. 

Group F. Includes Pocahontas coal, the high grade Arkansas coals 
west of the Spadra District and New River coals. 



HELIOS 47 

Group G. Includes upper Freeport and Pittsburg coals or Northern 
W. Virginia, Kanawha Valley coals, high grade Kentucky coals, and 
Alabama coals. 

Group II. Includes all Indian Territory coals, all Kansas coals, 
high grade Illinois, Iowa and Missouri coals, and second grade Kentucky 
coals. 

Group I. Includes the great majority of Iowa, Illinois, and Aiis- 
souri coals, Indiana coal and some bituminous coals from Wyoming and 
Montana. 

Group J. Includes all the lignites, both black and brown that 
were tested. 

Group K. Is limited to peat and is based entirely upon one analysis 
obtained from outside sources. 

Group L. Is woods, the lowest group in the series." 

Coal from every district, indeed from different mines of the same 
region vary in their composition. Any table of analyses could therefore 
only be of very restricted use, since it is of course impracticable to pub- 
lish a complete list. However, in order to give a general idea of the 
average characteristics of typical coals, table No. 23 has been compiled 
from the reports of the U. S. G. S. and represents a fair average of what 
may be expected of anthracite, semi-bituminous, bituminous and lignite 
coals of the U. S. 

METHODS OF FIRING COAL. 

There are three methods of charging coal known as the alternate, 
the spreading, and the coking systems. 

The alternate system consists of charging the fresh coal alternately 
first on one side of the furnace and then on the other or in alternate doors 
where there are more than two. In this manner the gases that are given 
off from the freshly fired coal are burned by the hot excess air coming 
through the unfired portions of the furnace. This system is used to good 
advantage where the grates are very wide or where two or more furnaces 
have a common combustion chamber. 

The spreading system consists in charging the coal in a thin layer over 
the entire grate at each firing, usually commencing at the bridge wall 
and working toward the door. This means that the furnace must be 
fired often and In small amounts, or In the fire room vernacular, "by the 
spoonful". 




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HELIOS 



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The coking system consists in charging the coal on the dead plate 
or at the front of the fire in order that the mass may become coked 
through, after which this is pushed back toward the bridge-wall and 
spread evenly over the grates to make room for the new charge. This 
is the system used with nearly all mechanical stokers. 

Table No. 24 

PRODUCTION OF COAL IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1814 TO THE CLOSE 
OF 1909, IN SHORT TONS. 



Anthracite 


Bituminous. 


Total. 


Value. 


1814-1845 


16,473,243 


11,203,971 


27,679,214 




1S46-1S55 


51,948,337 


31,469,490 


83,417,827 




1856-1865 


98,593,540 


75.201,474 


173,795,014 




1866-1875 


198,436,722 


220,988,382 


419,425,104 




1876-1885 


309,991,788 


537,768,531 


847,760,319 




1886-1895 


486,784,754 


1,099.313,887 


1,586,098,641 


$1,856,147,740 


1896-1905 


612,395,214 


2,220,007,502 


2,832,402,746 


3,-306,933,826 


1906-1909 


321,214,636 


1,449,952,180 


1,771,166,816 


2,215,095,448 



COKE. 



Coke is the solid substance remaining after the partial burning oi 
coal in an oven or after distillation in a retort. 

When the former process is used, the coke is the primary product 
and any other products are considered as by-products being quite fre- 
quently thrown away, although modern coke making processes save 
most of them. 

In the retort process, however, the coke itself is one of the by-pro- 
ducts, the gases being the object of the operation, although the by-products 
have in later years become better revenue producers than the gas itself. 

Gas retort coke is produced by the application of high temperature 
to the outside of the retort for a short time. The product is soft, spongy, 
and of dark grey color approaching black. It is not fitted for metallur- 
gical work and its principal use is for domestic purposes, and in steam 
boiler practice. 

Coke produced in beehive ovens however, is made under lower tem- 
peratures, the process requiring from 48 to 72 hours. It is hard, dense, 
and of a light grey color, has a brilliant metallic lustre, and will ring 
when struck. The product is especially adapted for heavy metallurgical 
work, but its high cost precludes its use for either steam boilers or do- 




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HELIOS 53 

mestic purposes. This same grade of coke is now extensively produced 
in closed ovens in a very much more economical way. 

There is but little difference, as shown by chemical analysis, in the 
heating power of different cokes. It is roughly considered as being 
about 14000 B. T. U. per lb., and the difference in adaptability is due to 
the physical differences. Analyses of 29 samples of coke from six different 
states give averages as follows: 

Carbon 89.15%, Sulphur 0.918%, Ash 9.21%. 

The average weight of solid coke may be taken as 45 lbs. per cu. ft. 
The average weight of heaped coke may be taken as 30 lbs. per cu. ft. 
One long ton heaped averages 75 cu. ft. 

Under ordinary conditions coke carries from 5%, to 10% water, and 
if unprotected, will absorb from 15% to 25% of its own weight. 

Good coal carefully handled in a beehive oven produces on an aver- 
age of about 66% to 663^% coke, which can be marketed as such; about 
2% to 2^2% of breeze or fine coke and from 0.75% to 1% ash, there 
being an average of about 30% to 31% loss, mostly due to the volatile 
matters driven off in the coking process. 

PEAT. 

Peat is a substance of vegetable origin and is always found more or 
less saturated with water in swamps and bogs. It consists of roots and 
fibres in every stage of decomposition, from the natural wood to vege- 
table mold. It is valuable as a fuel only after having been dried out 
as much as possible. As found in the bog, peat usually contains 85% to 
90% of water and when air dried still holds at least 15% moisture. 

The analysis of air dried peat of good quality would be about as 
follows: 48% carbon, 4% hydrogen, 27% oxygen, 1% nitrogen, 15% 
moisture, 5%o ash. 9000 B. T. U's. 

The analysis of perfectly dried peat would be about as follows: 

58%o to 60%o carbon, 6% hydrogen, 30% to 31% oxygen, 1%, to 
13^%nitrogen, 23^% to 5% ash. 10260 B. T. U's. 

The weight per cu. ft. peat heaped is from 6 lbs. to 223^2 lbs., or 
33.3 cu. ft. to 88.8 cu. ft. per ton of 2000 lbs. 

Peat is prepared for use as fuel in three forms: First, as hand or 
spade peat; second, as briquetted peat; third, as machine peat. 

(1) Spade peat is obtained by cutting out of the bog regularly 
shaped blocks, stacking the blocks on the ground to dry. The product is 
very commonly friable, will not stand transportation, is not suitable 




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for coking, and is usually quite bulky, although the specific gravity may 
run from 0.2 to 1.3. 

(2) Briquetted peat is produced by compressing dry powdered 
peat with heavy machinery into regularly shaped blocks. The briquetted 
fuel is very clean and handsome, and bears transportation fairly well. 
Like the spade peat it is unsuitable for coking. 

(3) The simplest and most practicable way of working the raw 
material into a satisfactory fuel, which is not bulky, which will stand 
transportation, and which is suited for coking is to make the so-called 
machine peat. The process is carried out with many different forms of 
machinery, all of which are dependent on the same principle; that when 
raw peat containing from 80% to 85% of water is thoroughly mixed and 
kneaded, it looses its fibrous structure and on drying shrinks firmly to- 
gether into a compact mass of about one-fifth the original volume. 

. Machine peat, made from American material, ordinarily has a spe- 
cific gravity of about 0.9, is tough enough to be cut like wood with a 
saw, and will take a moderate polish. It gives fine coke, containing no 
sulphur or phosphorous, and is especially fitted for replacing charcoal 
in metallurgical work. 

Peat is found in many parts of Europe, and has been used in Ire- 
land for many years as a domestic fuel. As a substitute for coal it is 
exciting considerable interest in this country, as large tracts have been 
discovered in Iowa, Wisconsin, N. Dakota and California, as well as at 
intervals along the eastern sea coast. The most valuable deposit so far 
discovered, exists in Minnesota, where hundreds of acres of peat, several 
feet deep, have been found. 

While briquetted peat has been found to be a good fuel it has still 
greater possibilities in connection with gas engines. Compressed Florida 
peat produces a gas fully as valuable as that formed from lignites. The 
possibilities in this direction are so promising that the matter has been 
taken up by the governments of the United States and Canada in the 
hope and expectation of securing definite information. 

TAR. 

Coal Tar. 

The value of coal tar as a fuel is usually very much lower than its 
value for other purposes, but it is at times used to advantage as a fuel. 
The yield of coal tar varies with the kind of coal and with the methods 
employed, from about 43/^% to 63^% of the weight of coal. It is lower in 



56 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

hydrogen'and higher in carbon than crude oil, and therefore, of a lower 
calorific value. Tar made from standard gas coal would have an ulti- 
mate analysis about as follows: 

Carbon 89.21% 

Hydrogen 4 . 95% 

Nitrogen 1 .05% 

Oxygen 4.23% 

Sulphur. 0.56% 

. Ash Trace 

It has a specific gravity of about 1.25; a gallon weighing 10.3 lbs. 

Using Dulong's formula as adopted by the A. S. M. E., such fuel 
would have about 15800 B. T. U's. per lb., and a theoretical evaporative 
power of about 16.4 lbs. of water, from and at 212°F. A series of calori- 
metric tests give about 15700 B. T. U's. Coal tar may be burned if 
heated and strained, the same as other liquid fuels. 

Oil Tar. 

Oil tar is produced in an ordinary gas apparatus, has a specific gravity 
of 1.15, is less sticky than coal tar, and can be transported, handled and 
burned like other oils. Its analysis is about as follows: 

Carbon 92.7 % 

Hydrogen 6 . 13% 

Nitrogen . 11% 

Oxygen 0.69% 

Sulphur 0.37% 

Ash Trace 

By the Dulong formula the above analysis would give 17296 B. T. 
U's., and its theoretical evaporative power would be about 17.9 lbs. of 
water from and at 212°F. By the calorimeter such oil gives a value of 
17190 B. T. U's. 

WOOD. 

Wood may be described as vegetable fibre in its natural state. Usu- 
ally the term is used to designate the limbs and trunks of trees as they 
are felled. Wood may be divided into two classes. 

First, the hard, compact and comparatively heavy woods, such as 
oak, beech, elm and ash. Second, the light colored, soft, and compara- 
tively light woods, such as pine, birch poplar and willow. When freshly 



HELIOS 57 

cut, about 45% of the total weight of wood is water, and when air dried 
and kept in a dry location, it still retains from 15% to 25% of water. 

All woods have nearly the same heat value, as, when perfectly dry, 
all are practically of the same chemical composition. Thoroughly dried 
wood compared to coal is rated commonly as containing 0.40 the amount 
of heat contained in the same weight of coal, that is 

1 lb. of wood = 0.40 lbs. coal 
1 lb. of coal =2.50 lbs. wood 

The loss of economy due to the presence of water in the wood is 
shown in the following table, which gives the difference in chemical com- 
position and heat value between perfectly dried wood and ordinary fire 
wood. 

Dry wood. Ordinary fire wood. 

Carbon 50% 37 .5% 

Hydrogen 6% 4.5% 

Oxygen 41% 30.75% 

Nitrogen 1% .75% 

Ash 2% 1.50% 

100% 75.00% 

Moisture 25 .00% 



100.00% 

The heat values of the above are as follows: 

7840 B. T. U. 5880 B. T. U. 

Equivalent to 8.1 lbs of water 6.1 lbs of water 

evaporated per lb. of fuel from and at 212°F theoretically. 

From the above it will be seen that there is a loss of heating power 
per lb. of ordinary fire wood of 25%, due to the presence of the hygro- 
metric water, and there is a still further loss of 5% due to the fact that 
this water must be evaporated. 

Suppose the wood with its contained water to be fed onto the fire 
at the ordinary temperature of 62°F. Each lb. of water therefore will 
require about 1116.6 B. T. U. to heat it up to 212°F. and evaporate it 
at this temperature, and as each lb. of wood by above analysis contains 
3^ lb. of water, this will require 279 heat units to evaporate it, which is 
4.7% of the total heat generated, so that ordinary fire wood has only 
about 71% of the heat value of perfectly dry wood. The A. S. M. E. 
have established a value of wood in its equivalent in coal for the purpose 
of boiler testing as above stated, viz: 1 lb. of wood = 0.40 lbs. of coal, 




6000 H. P. OF HEINE BOILERS AND SUPERHEATERS, IN PROCESS OF 

ERECTION IN POWER HOUSE OF THE GRAND CENTRAL STATION 

N. Y. C. AND H. R. R. R. CO., NEW YORK, N. Y. 



HELIOS 



59 



but in case greater accuracy is desired, 1 lb. of wood may be considered 
as having a heat value equivalent to the evaporation of six lbs. of water 
from and at 212°F., which is equivalent to 5794 B. T. U's. per lb. 

Table No. 25 

COMPOSITION OF WOOD. 
(gottlieb and CHEVANDIER.) 



Woods 


Carbon 


Hydrogen 


Oxygen 


Nitrogen 


Ash 


Beech 

Oak 


49.36% 
49.64 


6.01% 

5.92 

6.20 

6.21 

5.96 

6.27 

6.20 

5.92 

6.20 


42.69% 

41.16 

41.62 

41.60 - 

39.56 

43.91 

44.25 

43.39 

43 . 08 


0.91% 

1.29 

1.15 

0.96 

0.96 

0.07 

0.06 

0.05 

0.04 


1.06% 
1.97 


Birch 

Poplar 

Willow 

Ash 


50.20 
49.37 
49.96 
49.18 
48.99 
50.36 
50.31 


0.81 
1.86 
3.37 
0.57 


Elm 

Fir 

Pine 


0.50 
0.28 
0.37 















WEIGHT OF WOOD PER CORD. 



Kind of Wood. 


Weight. 


Kind of Wood. 


Weight 


Hickory, shell bark 

" redheart 


4469 
3705 
3821 
3254 
2325 
2137 


Beech 

Hard Maple. 


3126 

2878 


White oak 


Southern pine 


3375 


Red oak 


Virginia pine 


2680 


Spruce 


Yellow pine 


1904 


New Jersey pine 


White pine .... 


1868 











TAN BARK. 

Tan bark, usually oak bark after having been used in the process 
of tanning, is frequently burned as fuel. The spent bark consists of the 
fibrous portions and according to M. Peclet, five parts of oak bark pro- 
duces four parts of dry tan, the heat value of which is about 6100 B. T. 
U., and this so-called dry tan contains about 15% of ash. Tan bark in 
its ordinary state of dryness contains about 30% of water, and has a heat 
value of 4284 B. T. U. The theoretical evaporation from and at 212°F. 
of 1 lb. of spent bark equivalent to the above heating power is about 
4.12 lbs. water. 

To burn wet tan bark successfully, it should be done in a furnace 
of sufficient volume to accommodate a large quantity of wet bark, exposed 
to the heated gases coming from the burning bark, which has been pre- 
viously dried. As the wet bark becomes dried, It must be fed down 
and burned, where its hot gases in turn assist in drying the newly fed 



60 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



fuel. The rate of combustion is limited by the rapidity of the drying 
process. If it exceeds this the dry portion burns up completely, leaving 
the wet fuel which refuses to burn. 

STRAW. 

Straw consists of the stems or stalks of grain, and its principal use 
is for plaiting, thatching, paper making, etc., but in certain localities it 
is used as a fuel. The composition of straw in its ordinary air dried con- 
dition is given by Mr. John Head as follows: 

Table No. 26 





Wheat Straw 


Barley Straw 


Mean 


Carbon 


c/ 
/o 

35 . 86 
5.01 

37.68 

.45 

5.00 

16.00 


% 
36.27 

5.07 

38.26 

.40 

4.50 
15.50 


% 
36.00 


Hydrogen 


5.00 


Oxygen 


38.00 


Nitrogen 

Ash 


.425 
4.75 


Water 


15 . 75 




100.00 


100.00 


100.00 



Its heat value as shown by the mean composition above is 5411 
B. T. U. out of which 153 B. T. U. must be used in evaporating the nat- 
ural water, leaving 5258 B. T. U. available, which is equivalent to the 
evaporation of 5.4 lbs. of water per lb. of straw from and at 212°F. 

BAGASSE. 



Bagasse Is the fibrous portion of sugar cane left after the juice has 
been extracted from it in the mill and consists of water, woody fibre, 
sucrose, glucose and other solids in varying proportions depending upon 
the quality of the cane and its treatment in the mill. According to 
Prof. E. W. Kerr's experiments the moisture content varies from 50 to 
56 per cent in the Louisiana cane and from 44 to 52 per cent in the tropics 
and the average heat value per pound of dry bagasse is 8360 B. T. U. 

Assume a bagasse containing 50% moisture, a boiler room tem- 
perature of 70°F. and a stack temperature of 500°F. To raise the tem- 
perature of the contained moisture in one pound of wet bagasse from 
70°F. to 212°F., evaporate it and then raise the temperature of the vapor 
thus formed to 500°F. will require: — 



HELIOS 61 

.5 [ (212 - 70) + 970.4 + .5(500 - 212) ] = 628 B. T. U. 
where the first term in the bracket represents the heat necessary to raise 
the temperature of the water from 70° to 212°F., the second term the 
latent heat of vaporization at atmospheric pressure, and the last term 
the degrees of superheat multiplied by the specific heat of superheated 
steam at atmospheric pressure. 

If the dry bagasse contains 8360 B. T. U's. per pound the wet bagasse 
will contain .50 X 8360 = 4180 B. T. U. It takes 628 B. T. U. to evapo- 
rate the contained moisture, therefore the net heat available will be 
4180 — 628 = 3554 B. T. U. per pound of bagasse as fired. 

Table No. 27 gives the net heat value of bagasse with varying per- 
centages of contained moisture. 





Table No. 


27 




Moisture 


Net calorific value per 




percent 


pound of bagasse, B.T. U. 


60.... 




2599 


56.... 




2977 


54. . . . 




3170 


52.... 




3360 


50. . . . 




3554 


48. . . . 




3746 


46. . . . 




3938 


44. . . . 




4131 


42. . . . 




4323 


40. . . . 




4515 



The proportion of this net heat which will be given to the water 
inside the boiler depends on the efficiency of the boiler and furnace. If 
the efficiency of the boiler plant is 65 per cent we would have an equiv- 

65 X 3554 
alent evaporation of — q-„ . — = 2.31 pounds of water from and at 

212°F. 

Table No. 28 compiled by Prof. Kerr gives a comparison between 
bagasse of different extractions, coal and fuel oil. 

The following are some of the conclusions reached in Louisiana 
Bulletin No. 117: 

"Less excess of air is required with bagasse than with coal, usually 
50% or less is sufficient 

The rate of combustion should be at least 100 pounds per square 
foot of grate surface per hour, and best results were obtained with rates 
even higher than this. 



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Lbs. of Bagasse 

required to equal 

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of .915 sp. gr. and 

19000 B. T. U. 

calorific value. 1 

gal. of above equal 

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64 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



Not less than 1.5 boiler horsepower should be provided per ton of 
cane per 24 hours. 

A good working furnace depends more upon the proportion of heat- 
ing surface to the grate surface, rate of combustion and other matters 
of design and operation than upon the type or form. 

On account of the large amount of moisture in bagasse which is 
converted into steam in the furnace, a volume of gas and steam much 
larger than for coal must be provided for in the combustion chamber 
and the passages to the stack." 




BROWN PALACE HOTEL, DENVER, COL., CONTAINS 1000 H. P. 
OF HEINE BOILERS. 



HELIOS 



65 



FUEL OILS. 

The great production of petroleum in the last few years has 
made it of prime importance as a boiler fuel. The following taken from 
the U. S. G. S. Reports of 1908-1909 shows how rapid this increase has 
been: 



Table No. 29 



Years 


Production in bbls. of 42 gals. Total Value 


1859-68 
1869-78 
1879-88 
1889-98 
1899-1908 
1909 


23,488,534 

88,462,318 

257,698,609 

513,262,365 

1,103,269,116 

182,134,274 


89,398,850 
199,197,919 
211,200,848 

384,548,840 
900,237,486 
128,248,873 



Table No. 30 
PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM IN THE SEVERAL STATES IN 1908. 



State 


Rank. 


Quantity. 
Bbls. 


Percentage. 


Oklahoma 


1 
2 

I 

5 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

12 

13 

14 

15 


45,798,795 

44,854,737 

33,685,106 

11,206,464 

10,858,797 

9,523,176 

9,424,325 

6,835,130 

3,283,629 

1,801,781 

1,160,128 

727,707 

379,653 

17,775 ] 

15,246 1 


25 . 50 


California 


24.98 


lUinois 


18.76 


Texas 


6 24 


Ohio 


6 05 


West Virginia 


5.30 


Pennsylvania 


5.25 


Louisiana 


3.80 


Indiana 


1 83 


Kansas 


1 00 


New York 


.65 


Kentucky 

Tennessee 


} 


.41 


Colorado 


.21 


Utah 1 




Wyoming 






Michio:an 

Missouri 




1 

/ 


.02 






179,572,479 


100.00 



There were 13 railroad companies that used fuel oil on their lines 
in 1908. The aggregate fuel consumption was 16,889,070 barrels. The 
estimated mileage covered by oil-burning engines on these roads was 
64,347,357 miles in 1908, an average of 3.81 miles per barrel of oil con- 
sumed. 



66 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

Mr. B. R. T. Collins, in Power for May 16, 1911, gives the following 
advantages and disadvantages of Fuel Oil. 

ADVANTAGES. 

1. Calorific value per pound 30% higher than that of high-grade 
coal, less weight of oil being required for the same heating effect. 

2. Space required for storage of oil is less than that for an equal 
weight of coal. 

3. Oil does not deteriorate by storage. 

4. Lower temperature in the boiler room. 

5. Area of stack 60% of that required for coal for equal boiler ca- 
pacity, thus enabling a plant having insufficient draft with coal to have 
an excess amount with oil, a change from coal to oil making the instal- 
lation of additional stack capacity unnecessary. 

6. Less heat loss up the stack, owing to cleaner condition of the 
tubes and to the smaller amount of air which has to pass through furnace 
for a given calorific capacity of fuel. 

7. Higher efficiency due to more perfect combustion with less ex- 
cess air, more equal distribution of heat in combustion chamber, as doors 
do not have to be opened and very little soot is deposited on the tubes. 

8. Increase in capacity over coal. 

9. Heat is easier on metal surfaces, being better diffused over the 
entire heating surface of the boiler. 

10. Ease with which fire can be regulated from a low to a most 
intense heat in a short time or entirely extinguished instantly in case 
of emergency, such as water dropping out of sight in gage glass, and 
quickly relighted when the emergency is over. In less than half an 
hour a boiler can be brought up to 150 pounds steam pressure from cold 
water, if necessary. 

11. Smoke can be entirely eliminated. 

12. No cleaning of fires. 

13. Much lower cost for handling oil than handling coal. 

14. Absence of coal dust and ashes. 

15. No firing tools used, consequently, no damage to furnace lin- 
ings from this source. No clinkers to be remoyed from grate bars or 
furnace side walls. 

16. Saving in labor of all kinds. 



HELIOS 67 



DISADVANTAGES. 

1. Low flash point. Fuel oil should have a flash point not lower 
than 140°F., and with oil of this quality, handled by men of ordinary 
intelligence and common sense, there is practically no more danger than 
with coal. 

2. The ordinary underwriters' or city requirements specify that 
storage tanks for fuel oil be located underground and at least 30 feet 
from the nearest building. This can generally be complied with in the 
case of the power plant of the average manufacturing concern, but in the 
case of a plant in the congested districts of a city it is likely to be pro- 
hibitive. 

3. With boilers using feed water of considerable scale-making quali- 
ties, the cost of repairs is likely to be increased by changing to oil, owing 
to the intense temperature developed in the furnace. 



The U. S. Naval Liquid Fuel Board appointed for the purpose of 
thoroughly investigating the problem of using oil as a boiler fuel, made 
an exhaustive report to the Navy Department. Their conclusions are 
given in full and while relating particularly to marine practice, there is 
much that is applicable to land practice. 

CONCLUSIONS OF THE U. S. NAVAL LIQUID FUEL BOARD. 

a. That oil can be burned in a very uniform manner. 

b. That the evaporative efficiency of nearly every kind of oil per 
pound of combustible is probably the same. While the crude oil may 
be rich in hydrocarbons, it also contains sulphur, so that, after refining, 
the distilled oil has probably the same calorific value as the crude product. 

c. That a marine steam generator can be forced to even as high a 
degree with oil as with coal. 

d. That up to the present time no ill efi"ects have been shown upon 
the boiler. 

e. That the firemen are disposed to favor oil, and therefore no 
impediment will be met in this respect. 

/. That the air requisite for combustion should be heated if pos- 
sible before entering the furnace. Such action undoubtedly assists the 
gasification of the oil product. 

g. That the oil should be heated, so that it could be atomized more 
readily. 




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70 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

h. That when using steam higher pressures are undoubtedly more 
advantageous than lower pressures for atomizing the oil. 

i. That under heavy forced draft conditions, and particularly when 
steam is used, the Board has not yet found it possible to prevent smoke 
from issuing from the stack, although all connected with the tests made 
special efforts to secure complete combustion. Particularly for naval 
purposes, it is desirable that the smoke nuisance be eradicated in order 
that the presence of a war ship might not be detected from this cause. 
As there has been a tendency of late to force the boilers of industrial 
plants, the inability to prevent the smoke nuisance under forced-draft 
conditions may have an important influence upon the increased use of 
liquid fuel. 

/. That the consumption of liquid fuel cannot probably be forced 
to as great an extent with steam as the atomizing agent as when com- 
pressed air is used for this purpose. This is probably due to the fact 
that the air used for atomizing purposes, after entering the furnace, 
supplies oxygen for the combustible, while in the case of steam the rari- 
fied vapor simply displaces air that is needed to complete combustion. 

k. That the efficiency of oil-fuel plants will be greatly dependent 
upon the general character of the installation of auxiliaries and fittings, 
and therefore the work should be intrusted only to those who have given 
careful study to the matter and who have had extended experience in 
burning the crude product. The form of the furnace will play a very 
small part in increasing the use of crude petroleum. The method and 
character of the installation will count for much, but where burners are 
simple in design and are constructed in accordance with scientific princi- 
ples there will be very little difference in their efficiency. Consumers 
should principally see that they do not purchase appliances that have 
been untried and have been designed by persons who have had but lim- 
ited experience in operating oil devices. 

FUEL GAS. 

Gaseous Fuel has so many apparent advantages over any other 
that it may properly be regarded as the ideal fuel. Manufacturers who 
have once realized its advantages, would gladly welcome some kind of 
gaseous fuel, provided this can be made cheap enough to compete with 
the local coal. To answer this demand a number of processes have been 
invented. The U. S. Geological Survey in its report on the Mineral 
Resources of the United States, reports the production of natural gas 
in 22 states. In some of these states such quantities are produced that 
immense industrial operations are based on its use. 



HELIOS 



71 



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HELIOS 



73 



Table No. 33 shows the relative heat values of the four gases in the 
previous table, and a comparison of each with soft coal. The coal is as- 
sumed to cost $2.00 per ton and to have a heat value of 13500 B. T. U. 
The efficiency of the two fuels is assumed to be the same when burned 
under a boiler. The last column shows what price should be paid for the 
gas in order to make it economical to use that fuel. No account has 
been taken of the saving resulting from the less attention needed, the 
probably higher efficiency, the fact that that there are no ashes to re- 
move, and the greater ease of handling when gas is used. These factors 
would make it possible to pay a higher rate for gas depending on the 
size of plant and the relative importance of the various items mentioned. 
As an approximation it may be said that it does not pay to use natural 
gas if it costs more than 10 cents per 1000 cu. ft., and the others in pro- 
portion. 

Table No. 33 

COMPARISON OF GAS AND COAL. 



Variety 


Heat Units 

per 
1000 cu. ft. 


Equivalent 
pounds 
of coal. 


Corresponding 

price per 

1000 cu. ft. 


Natural Gas 


1,100,000 
755,000 
350,000 
155,000 


81.5 

55.9 

25.9 

11.48 


8.15 Cents 


Coal Gas 


5.59 


Water Gas 


2 . 59 " 


Producer Gas 


1.148 " 







Table No. 34 
CU. FT. OF GAS REQUIRED PER HP. PER HR. 



Variety. 


100 per cent 
efficiency. 


80 per cent 
efficiency. 


70 per cent 
efficiency. 


60 per cent 

efficiency. 


Natural Gas 

Coal Gas 


30.4 

44.4 

95.6 

216.0 


38.0 

55 . 5 

119.5 

270.0 


43.5 

63.6 

136.5 

308.6 


50.7 
74 


Water Gas 

Producer Gas 


159.2 
360.0 



Table No. 35 
WATER EVAPORATION ON BASIS OF 75 PER CENT BOILER EFFICIENCY. 



Pounds water from and at 212°F. per 1000 
cu. ft. Gas. 



Natural 
Gas. 



851 



Coal 
Gas. 



584 



Water Producer 
Gas. Gas. 



270.5 



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HELIOS 



Experiments have shown that the t}-pe of burner seems to have 
very little effect on the efficiency of the combustion. Opinions are 
about equally divided, also, on the kind of flame which is best. A blue 
flame indicates perfect combustion and a white flame indicates imper- 
fect combustion; but perfect combustion may exist beyond the white 
flame, provided enough air is supplied to unite with the unconsumed 
particles of carbon. If the latter state exists then the two flames should 
give the same efficiency. In practice it is usua to have a flame which 
is part white and part blue. 

Table No. 36 

QUANTITY AND VALUE OF NATURAL GAS PRODUCED AND CONSUMED IN THE 
UNITED STATES IN 1906, 1907 AND 1908. U. S. G. S. 1908. 



Domestic 
Quantity M 
Cubic Feet. 


Industrial j Total. ^ 

Quantity M Quantity M ..^u- ^^'' . 
>. , . Tf ^ ' r- u- r- ^ M Cubic Feet. 
Cubic Feet. Cubic reet. 


Value 
Dollars 


1906—110,405,808 
1907—131,377,587 
1908-140,583,732 


278,436,754 
275,244,-532 
261,556,998 


388,842,562 
406,622.119 
402,140,730 


12.1 

13.33 

13.59 


46,873,932 
54,222,399 
54,640,374 




LAYING OUT AND INITIAL PROCESSES, HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

SHOP, ST. LOUIS, MO. 




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HELIOS 77 

WATER. 

PURE water, whether in the solid, liquid or gaseous state is a chem- 
ical combination of the two elements hydrogen and oxygen. These 
two gases when combining chemically, always do so in the propor- 
tion of two parts by volume of hydrogen with one part of oxygen. If the 
two gases are mixed while cold in the above proportions the mixture is 
merely a mechanical one until through the influence of heat, electricity or 
some other special agent, the two combine chemically. If a lighted taper 
be introduced into a vessel containing a cold mixture of the two gases in 
proper proportions they will combine, forming water, which will be 
found deposited on the inside of the containing vessel. If the union of 
the two gases be brought about in a vessel so arranged that the resulting 
water is maintained at a high temperature, it will retain its gaseous con- 
dition and the two volumes of hydrogen and the one volume of oxygen 
will be found to have become compacted into two volumes of steam as 
the result. 

Conversely, two volumes of steam may be dissociated by the appli- 
cation of heat into its constituent elements, namely two volumes of 
hydrogen and one volume of oxygen. Consequently the presence of 
moisture in fuels may assume importance in the ordinary process of com- 
bustion. 

WEIGHT AND BULK OF WATER. 

Water has been universally adopted as the standard by which the 
relative weights of other liquids and solids are determined, this relation 
being expressed by the term "Specific Gravity". The specific gravity 
of any body therefore indicates its weight as compared with the weight 
of an equal volume of pure water. Unfortunately there is a considerable 
difference in the weights of water at different temperatures as given by 
various authorities and experimenters, and until a further determination 
of these quantities shall have been made by some person of experience 
assisted by the use of modern and refined instruments and processes, 
the question must remain in its present state of uncertainty. However 
the differences in the results found by different investigators are all in 
the decimal parts and are mostly in the second and third place, so that 
unless for very refined calculations, the information given in Table No. 
39 (page 80) following will be found sufficiently accurate. This has been 
compiled from standard publications and is correct as far as is known. 
It will be noted that both the volume and weight per cubic foot change 
with the temperature and in fairly regular and increasing differences. 



78 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



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I-I E L I O S 



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80 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 



Table No. 39 
WEIGHT OF ONE CUBIC FOOT OF WATER AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES. 



Temp., 


Weight per 


Temp., 


Weight per 


Temp., 


Weight per 


Temp., 


Weight 


Degs. F. 


Cubic Foot. 


Degs. F. 


Cubic Foot. 


Deg. F. 


Cubic Foot. 


Deg. F. 


per Cu. Ft. 


32 


62.416 


85 


62.1S2 


145 


61.291 


■ 205 


59.930 


35 


62.422 


90 


62.133 


150 


61.201 


210 


59 . 880 


39.1 


62.425 


95 


62.074 


155 


61.096 


212 


59 833 


40 


62 . 425 


100 


62 . 022 


160 


60.991 


220 


59 . 630 


45 


62 , 420 


105 


61.960 


165 


60.843 


230 


59.370 


50 


62 . 409 


110 


61.868 


170 


60.783 


250 


58.830 


55 


62.392 


115 


61.807 


175 


60.665 


270 


58.260 


60 


62 . 372 


120 


61.715 


180 


60.548 


290 


57.650 


62 


62 . 355 


125 


61.654 


185 


60.430 


300 


57 . 330 


65 


62 . 344 


130 


61.563 


190 


60.314 


330 


56.300 


70 


62.313 


135 


61.472 


195 


60.198 


360 


55.180 


75 


62 . 275 


140 


61.381 


200 


60.120 


390 


53.940 


80 


62 . 232 










420 


52 . 600 



EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF WATER. 

Water Is only very slightly compressible. Its compressibility de- 
creases with increase of temperature. For each foot of pressure pure 
water will be diminished in volume from .0000013 to .0000015. Although 
water is practically incompressible even under the highest temperatures 
it readily expands by the application of heat with the exception that 
between the temperatures of melting ice at 32° and that of its point of 
greatest density 39.1 , there is a gradual contraction in volume as heat is 
applied, as will readily be noted in Table No. 39. 

SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER. 



Different substances vary much in their capacity for absorbing heat 
under equal changes in temperature, which relation is expressed by the 
term "Specific Heat". This means the quantity of heat necessary to 
raise the temperature of a substance one degree, as compared to the 
quantity of heat which is required to raise an equal weight of water one 
degree, from 62°F. to 63°F. As the specific heat of water is greater than 
that of any other known substance, the specific heat of all other substances 
must of necessity be expressed in decimals. The specific heat of water 
is not constant, as it varies with the temperature, but as this variation 
is extremely slight it need not be considered. except in very refined cal- 
culations. 



HELIOS 81 



IMPURITIES IN WATER. 

"A steam-boiler is a steam-generator, not a kettle for chemical 
reaction. 

"Get, if possible, a supply of clean, soft, natural water. 

"The only compound to put into a boiler is pure water. 

"Oxygen, the most useful element, is, when free in boilers, a most 
destructive corrosive element. 

Water as found in nature, is never pure being always more or less 
contaminated by impurities. In boiler practice these impurities have 
very serious effects and not only militate against economy of operation 
but may even jeopardize the life of the boiler itself. 

The purification of water is a chemical rather than an engineering 
problem and it is not the purpose to here specify any particular treat- 
ment, but simply to state conditions as they frequently exist, and in a 
general way outline the remedies. 

The various impurities which may be found in any water by a care- 
ful chemical analysis, may be made harmless by the use of such chemicals 
as will render them insoluble before the water is used. 

The impurities most commonly found in waters are the following: 

Earthy matters, bi-carbonates of lime and magnesia, iron, sul- 
phates of lime, chlorides and sulphates of magnesium, carbonate of 
soda in large amounts, acids, dissolved carbonic acid and oxygen, 
grease and organic matter. Impurities are commonly reported as the 
number of parts per one thousand or one hundred thousand. A larger 
amount than one hundred parts total solids per 100,000 parts of water 
should in most cases condemn the water for use in steam boilers. 

The effects of the impurities if not neutralized are as follows: 

Incrustation, caused by readily soluble salts, bi-carbonate of lime 
and magnesia, iron and sulphate of lime. 

Corrosion, caused by chloride and sulphate of magnesium, acids and 
dissolved carbonic acid and oxygen. 

Priming, caused by the presence of large amounts of carbonate of 
soda, calcium and magnesium, grease, and organic matter, such as sewage. 

The chemicals generally used to treat the impurities are caustic soda, 
lime or magnesia, carbonate of soda, barium ch'oride, milk of lime, alum, 
or ferric chloride, filtration and heating which may be used alone or to 
supplement the chemicals. 

Such remedial agents may be used in any of the following manners: 

First by treating the water to be used, with, such chemicals and 
coagulents as are indicated by a careful chemical analysis, in large quanti- 
ties and in special large tanks, so constructed that the re-agents may be 




o 

pq 

o 

p.; 



<; 



u 
Pi 

d 
u 

i-i 
o 
o 






HELIOS 



introduced, each in the required amount, continuously and automatically; 
or by having means provided for heating the water and with ample space 
where sedimentation may take place. Ample storage for the purified 
water must be provided so that the intermittent purifying processes may 
not interfere with the regular supply of pure water to the boilers. It is 
also frequently desirable to filter the purified water. The impurities 
thus deposited as solids may be removed from time to time. 

Secondly by the regular and constant addition to the feed water, 
as it is supplied to the boiler, of the necessary remedial agents as indicated 
by the analysis, in amounts proportional to the untreated water being 
used. This is frequently done by attaching a proper mechanism to the 
suction pipe of the boiler feed pump. This treatment is designed to 
change the impurities into combinations which are always soluble and 
which are disposed of by blowing off the boiler as often as required. 

Thirdly by pumping into the boiler at stated intervals, a quantity of 
some combination of remedial agents calculated to neutralize the vari- 
ous objectionable matters which may be present in the water, in such 
amounts as may be prescribed to cover a selected interval of time; when 
another dose of the compound is pumped in. The effect of this method 
is the same as the one preceding. 

In a general way it may be stated that the method as outlined in the 
first system is the best wherever the necessary room or space is available, 
as the entire process is completed outside of the boilers and entirely 
independent of them. No special machinery, excepting possibly a pump, 
is needed, and this only in cases where gravity pressure is not available. 

Where water is obtained from a driven or bored well, and must in 
any event be pumped to the surface, the same pumping machinery may 
readily be arranged to also elevate the water to a height sufficient to 
enable the subsequent handling through the tanks to be done by gravity. 

The only objection which can be raised against this method is the 
room required for the necessary treatment and storage tanks and the cost 
of the apparatus itself. The treatment is not at all expensive and 
wherever large quantities of water are used or where the impurities to be 
neutralized are such as to require time; or where a rather complicated 
treatment is demanded, this method is very much the best. 

The second method is desirable only where the quantity of impuri- 
ties is comparatively small, and of such a character as do not call for 
any complicated treatment. It has the objection that the chemical 
reactions must take place usually in a very short time in a much restricted 
space, and that the blowing oflF must be regularly attended to since the 
boiler water is constantly becoming more nearly saturated with the 
foreign compounds, thus inducing foaming and priming. 



84 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

The third mehod is the least desirable of all. As usually practiced 
it consists in placing a quantity of some compound of indefinite compo- 
sition in a boiler when the periodical washing out is completed and the 
boiler is being filled preparatory to being put back into service. Unless 
specially compounded by a competent chemist, after a careful analysis 
has been made of the water, these mixtures frequently do more harm 
than good. As a steam boiler is a particularly undesirable place in which 
to make chemical experiments, their use should be discouraged except 
under special conditions. 

OIL IN BOILERS. 

Oil or grease must be kept out of steam boilers, for if allowed to 
enter serious trouble is almost certain to result. The action of grease in 
a boiler is peculiar. It does not dissolve in water, it does not decompose, 
nor, as might be expected does it remain on top of the water. In the 
presence of heat and the violent ebullition existing in the boiler, it seems 
to form into what may be termed "slugs" which are of just about the right 
specific gravity to be carried about in the circulating water. In a short 
time, however, these slugs or suspended drops seem to acquire a certain 
degree of stickiness and when they come into contact with the metal 
surfaces of a boiler they adhere thereto. The ultimate effect is that the 
whole interior of the boiler becomes "varnished" with a coating of oil. 
The thinnest possible coating of this varnish is sufficient to bring about 
overheating of the plates as has been repeatedly found. It is not nec- 
essary that this coating be of any appreciable thickness to cause trouble, 
as it is sufficient to keep the water away from that intimate contact 
with the metal which is necessary for the quick absorption of the heat. 

This coating of oil causes not only overheating of the metal, but is 
likely to cause leaky tube ends, rivets, seams, in fact, where ever there 
is a joint. Every possible effort should be made to prevent oil from 
getting into a boiler, even to the extent of throwing away all hot water 
which contains any, if no efficient means can be provided for removing 
the oil before using the water for boiler feed. 



An engineer of a cement mill wrote us that every time he opened his 
Heine Boilers he found the mud drums full of a fine sediment. He asked 
if we would sanction the removal of the drums in order to avoid the frequent 
cleanings required. In answering we commented on this evidence of the 
efficiency of the device and advised him to use the blowoff more frequently. 

The Heine mud drum is designed to catch a large proportion of the 
solids that get into the interior of the boiler with the feed water. Read the 
description on page 161. 



HELIOS 



85 



LOSS OF PRESSURE IN PIPES. 

There is always a loss of pressure when water flows through pipes. 
This loss depends on the rate of flow, diameter of pipe and character of 
the interior surfaces. This loss is further increased by every bend, curve, 
fitting or valve or anything causing a deviation from a straight line or 
a. change in direction. 

The following formula and tables show how such losses can be calcu- 
lated and thereby allowed for in designing piping. 

Weisbach's Formula (Adapted) P = F ^^ 

in which 

P = Loss of pressure in pounds per square inch 

F = Co-efficient of friction 

V ^ Velocity in feet per second 

G = Acceleration of gravity, 32.2 

To use the above formula proceed as follows: 

Divide the velocity per minute, as found by Table No. 41 for the 
size of pipe selected and quantity desired, by sixty to reduce to seconds; 
square the velocity and divide by 64.4; multiply the result by F, as given 
in Table No. 40, corresponding to the angle of the bend or turn A for 
which the loss of pressure is desired. 



Table No. 40 



A. (Angle) 

F. (Co-efHcient) 



20° 
0.020 



40' 
0.060 



45° 
0.079 



60° 
0.158 



80° 
0.320 



90° 
0.426 



100° 
. 546 



110° 
0.674 



120° 
0.806 



130° 
0.934 



To illustrate the application of the Tables Nos. 40, 41, 42, we give 
here a concrete example. 

Suppose a steam boiler of 100 H. P. capacity, to be supplied with 
feed water in the usual manner by a feed pump through a heater and 
pipes. 

One boiler horse power = 34.5 lbs of water evaporated per hour 
from and at 212°F. Any fairly well designed modern plant will deliver 
its feed water at say 200°F., at which temperature water weighs 60.00 lbs. 
per cubic foot (Table No. 39). Therefore 34.5 lbs. of water at 60.00 lbs. 
per cubic foot means 0.575 cubic feet or 4.3 gallons per horse power hour. 

Under modern operations it is perhaps more frequent than not that 
boilers are required to supply for short periods, much more than their 



86 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

rated power so that it is necessary that provision be made to supply the 
amount needed without excessive friction losses or pump speeds. Hence 
the 4.3 gallons should be increased by, say, 75%. Therefore 4.3 gallons 
Xl.75 = 7.53 gallons per hour. Again, the pipes and fittings may be- 
come incrustated or otherwise obstructed so that it is best to increase 
the amount still further, say to 9 gallons per minute. Therefore we 

shall need for the 100 H. P. boiler —^ 777^ = 15 gallons per minute.. 

bO 

From Table No. 41 we find that a l}/^ in. pipe will deliver 15 gallons 
per minute with a velocity or rate of flow of 2353^^ ft. per minute. 

Now we will further suppose our boiler to be situated 80 feet distant 
from the feed pump and that there are six 90° ells, one tee, one angle 
valve and one globe valve in the line between the pump and the boiler. 

The frictions or losses of head will be as below. 
For the pipe. In Table No. 42, 15 gallons per minute the loss is 2.38 

lbs. X 80 ft = 1 . 904 lbs 

For the 6 ells ] One 90° turn f 235f H-60 = 3.92 " 

Fortheltee I each by ^ 3.92x3.92 = 15. 37 -=-64. 4 = 0.239 " 

For the 1 angle valve J rule above I 0.239x0. 426 (Table No. 40) = 

0.1019x8 = 0.815 " 

For the 1 globe valve (2-90° bends) 0.1019x2 = 0.204 " 

Total friction loss 2 . 923 lbs 

For the difference in level between pump and boiler water level say 8 ft. 

we have . 433 lbs.x8 = 3 . 464 " 

For the boiler pressure say 100 lbs 100 " 

Total pressure on pump plunger 106.387 lbs 

By Table No. 40 it will be seen that by using two 45°ells effecting 
the same change in direction as one 90° ell, we make quite a saving as 
the two 45° ells will only make 37% of the friction made by the one 90° 
1, . 0.239X 0.079X2 „„ 
""' ^^""^ 0.1019x1 = ^^• 

HEATING FEED WATER. 

The subject of pre-heating the water intended to be used as feed 
water for any boiler, above its natural or normal temperature, has two 
aspects. 

First as a matter of safety. 

The water in a steam boiler, is at a temperature due to the pressure 
under which it is working. If the boiler is under a steam pressure of, 
say 125 lbs. by the gauge, then the water in it will be at a temperature of 
about 353°F. and a portion of the metal of the boiler is at some higher 
temperature than this. 



HELIOS 



87 



Table No. 41 

RATE OF FLOW OF WATER, IN FEET PER MINUTE, THROUGH PIPES OF VARI- 
OUS SIZES, FOR VARYING QUANTITIES OF FLOW. 



Gallons 
per 
min. 



Diameter of Pipe 



1" 



3" 



5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

75 

100 

125 

150 

175 

200 



218 
436 
653 
872 
1090 



1221 
245 
367* 
490 
612i 
735 
857* 
980 
1102i 



781 
157 
235i 
314 
392^ 
451 
549§ 
628 
7061 
785 
11771 



54* 
109 
1631 
218 
272* 
327 
381* 
436 
490* 
545 
817* 
1090 



30* 

61 

91* 
122 
152* 
183 
213* 
244 
274* 
305 
457* 
610 
762* 
915 
1067* 
1220 



19* 


13* 


38 


27 


58* 


40* 


78 


54 


97* 


67* 


117 


81 


136* 


94* 


156 


108 


175* 


121* 


195 


135 


292* 


202* 


380 


270 


487* 


337* 


585 


405 


682* 


472* 


780 


540 



71 

15* 

23 

30f 

38* 

46 

53 f 

61* 

69 

76f 

115 

153* 

1911 

230 

268* 

3061 



Table No. 42 

LOSS IN PRESSURE DUE TO FRICTION, IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH, FOR 
PIPE 100 FEET LONG. 



Gallons 
per 



Diameter of Pipe. 



1" 



3" 



4" 



10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

75 

100 

125 

150 

175 

200 



0.84 
3.16 
6.98 
12.3 
19.0 
27.5 
37.0 
48.0 



0.31 
1.05 
2.38 
4.07 
6.40 
9.15 
12.4 
16.1 
20.2 
24.9 
56.1 






12 





47 





97 


1 


66 


2 


62 


3 


75 


5 


05 


6 


52 


8 


15 


10 





22 


4 


39 













1 



0.12 

0'42 

0.91 

l'60 

2.44 
5.. 32 
9.46 
14.9 
21 .2 
28 'l 
37.5 



0.21 



0.81 
1.80 
3.20 
4.89 
7.0 
9.46 
12.47 



0.10 



0.35 
0.74 
1.31 
1.99 

2.85 
3.85 
5.02 




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HELIOS 89 

The difference in the density or weight of the feed water at, say 
70°F. and the water in the boiler at, say 35.3°F., is such that the colder 
water when poured into the boiler at once sinks to the bottom, spreading 
out thereon, and reduces the temperature of the metal structure and as 
its temperature is raised it commingles with the hotter water. The 
cold water coming into contact with the very much hotter metal inevi- 
tably causes contraction of the metal in its immediate neighborhood, 
setting up stresses of very uncertain intensity and direction. The effects 
of such stresses are particularly likely to be manifested in the riveted 
joints in the shape of cracks, leaks, etc. 

That this condition exists in fact is readily demonstrated by an ex- 
amination of the inspection reports of any of the Boiler Inspection and 
Insurance Companies. 

Secondly as a matter of economy. 

Where any of the common methods of water purification are prac- 
ticed, such as the introduction of chemicals or coagulants into the feed 
water heater, raising the temperature will, in itself, cause the precipita- 
tion of certain of the more common impurities and will also add to and 
facilitate the action of the chemicals. 

Assuming a boiler to operate under a steam pressure of 100 lbs. 
per square inch, and with feed water at an average temperature of 70°F., 
the following am.ount of heat must be supplied to each pound of water 
to raise its temperature from 70°F. up to 337.89°F. (the boiling point 
under 100 lbs. pressure) and to evaporate it at that temperature: 

In the water at 337.89°F. there are 308.79 B. T. U. above 32°F. 
70°F. " 38.06 B. T. U. above 32°F. 

Therefore we must add 270.73 B. T. U. per pound, all 

of which heat must be supplied by the fuel. 

Now, every heat unit which can be saved out of this 270.73 B. T. 
U., by raising the initial temperature above 70°F., is just that much less 
to be furnished by the fuel and will reduce the fuel expense accordingly, 
provided this temperature increase can be obtained without cost. 

Except in some particular lines of industry there is usually a surplus 
of exhaust steam, the heat of which may with great economy, be used 
for heating the feed water. 

In some large municipal heating plants, in some industries in which 
the drying of material is extensive, or in plants for manufacturing dis- 
tilled water or ice, it may happen that the exhaust steam from the en- 
gines and pumps can be used more economically for purposes other than 




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HELIOS 91 

for heating the feed water. In such cases a heater in the smoke flue or 
a Hve steam purifier may be advisable. 

When flue heaters are used they are st\'lcd economizers', and in 
cases where the boilers are overworked to such an extent that it is nec- 
essar}", in order to obtain the desired amount of power, for the flue gases, 
to escape from the boilers into the chimney at a temperature higher than 
may be necessary to maintain the draft, and where the floor space for 
more boilers is not obtainable, economizers are a valuable and efficient 
adjunct. They permit the feed water to be raised to a temperature 
much higher than is ever possible with an exhaust steam 'heater. Some- 
times, on the other hand where the flue gases are at a temperature only 
high enough to create a sufficient draft, and where therefore economizers 
are not advisable, live steam purifiers may be used. 

Such devices are usually placed at a higher elevation than the boilers 
and are connected directly into or with the steam space of the boilers 
themselves, and are therefore under the same steam pressure. The 
feed vv'ater is quite frequently pumped out of or through an exhaust steam 
heater where it receives such heat as may be available, directly into the 
purifier, from which it passes into the boilers by gravity. In such cases 
economizers may be used if the draft is maintained by some sort of 
mechanical draft apparatus. 

By all the devices mentioned the feed water is raised to a tempera- 
ture at which no harm to the boiler is to be anticipated, and the 
effect of any purifying effort which may be attempted is much increased, 
due to the increase in temperature. 

There is, however, little, if any, economy of fuel to be expected 
from the use of purifiers, but the elimination of the destructive stresses 
and the additional purifying effect may be considered as ample repayment 
for the extra cost of the apparatus. 

Economizers, on the other hand, where conditions are such as to 
permit of their use, result in a saving of fuel directly in proportion to 
the rise in temperature effected. 

The possible economy of fuel which may be expected to result from 
any increase in the initial temperature of the feed water may be 
readily ascertained by the use of the following formula: 

100 (T-t) r , ■ 

■ = percentage oi resultmg savmg. 

H - t 

In which T = B. T. U. in water above 32°F. after passing through heater. 

t =B.T. U. " " 32°F. before passing through heater. 

H = B. T. U. in steam above 32°F. at boiler pressure; 



92 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

To illustrate, suppose that in the case mentioned above the natural 
temperature of the water is 60°F., and that by passing it through an 
efficient heater supplied with exhaust steam, its temperature is raised 
to 210°F., we should have 
100 (177.99 - 28.08) 



1188.77 - 28.08 



= 12.91% saving in fuel. 



FEED WATER HEATERS. 

Feed water heaters are or two general styles known as the open 
and the closed or pressure heaters. In the open heater the water is fed 
by gravity or by city pressure into a vessel through which it passes slowly 
and in thin streams or sheets over a number of pans in succession, drip- 
ping from one into the next while it is exposed to the heat of the exhaust 
steam. After being heated, it flows by gravity into the suction of the 
boiler feed pump. In this type no pressure exists excepting possibly a 
small back pressure of one or two pounds, and hence such heaters are 
designed to withstand only about thirty pounds pressure. They are 
built of both cast iron and sheet metal or steel. 

The closed heater consists essentially of a shell made heavy enough 
to withstand the boiler pressure, provided with an arrangement of tubes 
of brass or steel. The feed water, fed by the pump, passes through the 
heater either inside or around the tubes and is heated by exhaust steam 
on the other side of the tubes. In the open heater, the water comes 
in direct contact with the steam, while in the closed heater the two are 
separated by metal walls. 

The most common and serious error made in the selection of a feed 
water heater for any plant is in getting one of too small a size. Any 
heater whether open or closed should be of ample capacity. In too 
small a heater the velocity of the water passing through it is so great 
the impurities which may have been made insoluble have not the time 
and space in which to settle, nor will the water be heated to as high a 
temperature as in a heater of proper size. 



Aside from acting as a receptacle for solid deposits, the Heine mud 
drum performs the additional function of preventing cold feed water from 
coming into contact with the metal structure of the boiler, until after it has 
been heated sufficiently to avoid any of the consequences outlined at the top 
of page 89. The reasons for this may be found on page 161. 



HELIOS 



93 



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HELIOS 



95 



STEAM. 



WHEN water is heated in an open vessel its temperature rises until 
it reaches 212°F. (at sea level); if more heat is added a portion of 
the water changes from a liquid form to a vapor called steam. 
If the process is carried on in a closed vessel the pressure within rises 
on account of the expansive force of the steam. The water then will rise 
to a higher temperature with each increment of pressure before it begins 
to boil and form steam. 

For the distinction between "sensible" and "latent" heat see P. 10 

Table No. 44, giving the properties of saturated steam, is adapted 
from Marks and Davis' Tables of the Properties of Saturated Steam. 
The first column gives the actual pressure in pounds per square inch 
above a vacuum. 

Column two gives the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit for the 
corresponding pressure. 

Columns three and four give the volume of one pound in cubic feet 
and the weight of one cubic foot of saturated steam. 

Column five gives the heat, in heat units, of the water above 32°F. 

Column six gives the heat of vaporization for the corresponding 
pressure, i. e., the heat rendered latent in the transformation from water 
to steam. 




WASHBURN CROSBY FLOUR A-IILLS, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN., 
CONTAINS 7000 H. P. OF HEINE BOILERS. 



96 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



Column seven gives the total heat In the steam above 32°F. and is 
the sum of columns five and six. 



Table No. 44 

PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM. 
FROM MARKS AND DAVIS' TABLES. 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Gauge Press- 


Temp. 


Sp. Vol. Cu. 


Density lbs. 


Heat of the 


Latent heat 


Total Heat 


Gauge Press- 


ure in lbs. 


Degrees 


Ft. per lb. 


per Cu. Ft. 


liquid 


of Evap. 


of Steam 


ure in lbs. 


per sq. in. 
P 


F 


V or S 


V 


Q 


L or R 


H 


per sq. in. 
P 


1 


101.83 


333.0 


0.00.300 


69.8 


1034.6 


1104.4 


1 


2 


126.15 


173.5 


0.00576 


94.0 


1021.0 


1115.0 


2 


3 


141.62 


118.5 


0.00845 


109.4 


1012,3 


1121.6 


3 


4 


153.01 


90.5 


0,01107 


120.9 


1005,7 


1126.5 


4 


5 


162.28 


73.33 


0,01364 


130,1 


1000,3 


1130.5 


5 


6 


170.06 


61.89 


0.01616 


137.9 


995.8 


1133.7 


6 


7 


176.85 


53.56 


0.01867 


144.7 


991.8 


1136.5 


7 


8 


182.86 


47.27 


0.02115 


150.8 


988.2 


1139.0 


8 


9 


188.27 


42.36 


0.02361 


156,2 


985.0 


1141.1 


9 


10 


193.22 


38.. 38 


0.02606 


161,1 


982.0 


1143.1 


10 


14.7 


212.00 


26.79 


0.037.32 


180,0 


970,4 


1150.4 


14.7 


20 


228.00 


20.08 


0.04980 


196,1 


960,0 


1156.2 


20 


25 


240.10 


16.30 


0.0614 


208.4 


9.52,0 


1160.4 


25 


30 


250.30 


13.74 


0.0728 


218.8 


945,1 


1163.9 


30 


35 


259.3 


11.89 


0.0841 


227,9 


938,9 


1166.8 


35 


40 


267.3 


10.49 


0.0953 


236,1 


933,3 


1169.4 


40 


45 


274.5 


9,39 


0.1065 


243,4 


928,2 


1171.6 


45 


50 


281.0 


8.51 


0.1175 


250,1 


923,5 


1173,6 


50 


55 


287.1 


7.78 


0.1285 


256,3 


919,0 


1175,4 


55 


60 


292.7 


7.17 


0.1394 


262,1 


914.9 


1177,0 


60 


65 


298.0 


6.65 


0.1503 


267,5 


911.0 


1178,5 


65 


70 


302.9 


6.20 


0.1612 


272,6 


907.2 


1179.8 


70 


75 


307.6 


5.81 


0.1721 


277,4 


903.7 


1181.1 


75 


80 


312.0 


5.47 


0.1829 


282.0 


900.3 


1182,3 


80 


85 


316.3 


5,16 


0.1937 


286.3 


897.1 


1183.4 


85 


90 


320.3 


4,89 


0.2044 


290.5 


893.9 


1184.4 


90 


95 


324.1 


4,65 


0,2151 


294.5 


890.9 


1185.4 


95 


100 


327,8 


4.429 


0,22.58 


298.3 


.888,0 


1186.3 


100 


105 


331.4 


4.2.30 


0,2365 


302.0 


885.2 


1187.2 


105 


110 


334.8 


4.047 


0,2472 


305.5 


882.5 


1188,0 


110 . 


115 


338.1 


3.880 


0,2577 


309,0 


879.8 


1188.8 


115 


120 


341.3 


3.726 


0,2683 


312,3 


877.2 


1189.6 


120 


125 


344.4 


3.583 


0.2791 


315.5 


874.7 


1190.3 


125 


130 


347,4 


3.4.52 


0.2897 


318,6 


872.3 


1191,0 


130 


135 


350.3 


3.331 


0.3002 


321,7 


869.9 


1191.6 


135 


140 


353.1 


32.19 


0.3107 


324,6 


876.6 


1192.2 


140 


145 


355,8 


3.112 


0.3213 


327,4 


865,4 


1192.8 


145 


150 


358.5 


3.012 


0.3.320 


330,2 


863,2 


1193,4 


150 


155 


361.0 


2.920 


0.3425 


332.9 


861,4 


1193,8 


155 


160 


363.6 


2.834 


0,3529 


335,6 


858,8 


1194,5 


160 


165 


366.0 


2.753 


0.36.33 


338.2 


856,8 


1195.0 


165 


170 


368.5 


2.675 


0.3738 


340,7 


854 7 


1195.4 


170 


175 


370.8 


2.602 


0,3843 


343,2 


852.7 


1195.9 


175 


180 


373.1 


2.533 


0,3948 


345,6 


850.8 


1196.4 


180 


185 


375.4 


2.468 


0.4052 


.348,0 


848.8 


1196.8 


185 



The ratio of the heat necessary to evaporate one pound of water 
under actual conditions of feed temperature and steam pressure to the 
heat required to evaporate one pound from and at 212°F. (which is at 
atmospheric pressure at sea level) is called the factor of evaporation. 
The heat necessary to evaporate one pound of water from and at 212°F., 
is 970.4 B. T. U. 

From table No. 45 may be obtained the factors of evaporation for 
a wide range of conditions. 



HELIOS 



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r-.i--ocGOC5o:oOi— ir-< 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



SUPERHEATED STEAM. 

In the use of steam in a steam engine one of the largest losses which 
occurs is that of the initial condensation, due to the contact of the hot 
steam with the comparatively cool surfaces of the cylinder head, piston 
head, and cylinder walls. For many years the only effort to diminish 
this loss took the form of a multiplication of cylinders; but this remedy 
though reducing the loss did not cure the trouble. It was argued that 
if the temperature of the steam could be raised above that due to its 
pressure, the expenditure of this extra heat would result in a benefit 
if it prevented the initial cylinder condensation. 

Mr. Basil Dixon made some exhaustive experiments upon the boilers 
of a steamer belonging to the United States Government which seemed 
to give promise of great possible economies. Later, similar experiments 
were made by the late Mr. Isherwood, Chief Engineer of the United 
States Navy, the results of which substantiated those previously ob- 
tained by Mr. Dixon, and ever since, the subject of superheating steam 
has been a most interesting and fascinating one and numberless experi- 
ments have been made with a view of bringing it into common use. 

While, however, the resulting economies were large, difficulties arose 
which for many years were very baffling. The lubrication of the cylin- 
ders at the high temperature due to the superheat, was found to be very 
difficult; piston and rod packings, as well as gaskets in flange joints, 
quickly burned out and many mysterious accidents occurred in valves 
and fittings, due, it was supposed to the use of improper materials. Very 
many of these troubles have now, however, been almost entirely over- 
come. The question of lubrication is handled satisfactorily if only a 
moderate amount of superheat is used. Metallic rod packings have 
replaced the use of others, and metallic gaskets have cured the troubles 
with flanges and flanged joints. So far as material for valves and fittings 
is concerned, the opinion seems to have crystallized now into the idea 
that if the excessive expansion due to the high temperatures is properly 
provided for these troubles will largely disappear, especially if heavier 
fittings of cast steel are used instead of cast iron. There is but little 
doubt that many of the previous troubles and accidents, attributed at 
the time to the high temperatures of the steam, were due in fact to the 
increased expansion of the linings and in many cases to failures of fittings 
due to defects which were not previously suspected. 

It remains yet to be demonstrated to just what extent superheating 
may be carried with benefit, but conservative engineers have quite com- 
monly arrived at the opinion that 100° to 125° superheat is about the 
limit to which superheating may be carried satisfactorily from all points 



HELIOS 



99 



of view, considering on the one hand the increased engine economy and 
on the other not too great an increase in the initial expense and cost of 
maintenance. It is, however, quite natural to believe that the above 
named limit will be raised much higher as the use of superheated steam 
increases and the limiting features become more definitely understood. 

PROPERTIES OF SUPERHEATED STEAM. 

The total heat in superheated steam is represented by the equation 

Ht = H + Cp (Ts - T) 
Where H = the total heat above 32°F. in saturated steam at the 
given pressure 

Cp = the specific heat of the superheated steam, 

Tg = the temperature of the superheated steam, 

T = temperature of the saturated steam. 

In the older works on superheated steam the value of Cp was 
assumed to be a constant and equal to .48. Later experiments have 
shown this value to be incorrect and that the specific heat varies both 
with the pressure and with the degree of superheat. In general, it is 
found that the specific heat increases with the increase of pressure and 
decreases with the increase of temperature. 

The following tables are arranged from the results of Professor 
Knoblauch and Dr. Jakob published in the Zeitschrift des Vereins Deut- 
scher Ingenieure and of Professor Thomas and Mr. Short published in 
the Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 
Vol. 29. 

Table No. 46 

SPECIFIC HEAT OF SUPERHEATED STEAM. 

Knoblauch and Jakob 



Degrees (F) 



Pressure in lbs. per sq. in. (absolute) 



of 
Superheat 


5 


15 


25 


50 


75 


100 


150 


200 


250 


300 


10 


0.460 


0.470 


0.480 


0.509 


0.540 


0.570 


0.620 


690 


0.770 


0.850 


50 


0.460 


0.470 


0.479 


0.504 


0.528 


0.550 


0.592 


0.634 


0.678 


0.724 


100 


0.459 


0.469 


0.477 


0.498 


0.517 


0.534 


0.562 


0.590 


0.615 


0.641 


150 


0.459 


0.469 


0.476 


0.494 


0.509 


0.522 


0.544 


0.563 


0.582 


0.599 


200 


0.460 


0.468 


0.476 


0.491 


0.504 


0.515 


0.533 


0.548 


0.562 


0.576 


250 


0.460 


0.468 


0.475 


0.489 


0.500 


0.509 


0.524 


0.537 


0.549 


0.561 


300 


0.460 


0.468 


0.475 


0.487 


0.497 


0.505 


0.518 


0.529 


0.540 


0.550 




• s 
m 




K 




H E L I O S 



101 



Table No. 47 
SPECIFIC HEAT OF SUPERHEATED STEAM. 

Thomas and Short 



Degrees (F) 

of 
Superheat 


Pressure in lbs. per sq. in. (absolute) 


5 


15 


40 


60 


100 


150 


300 600 


50 
100 
150 
200 
250 
300 


0.519 
0.497 
0.488 
0.484 
0.481 
0.480 


0.530 
0.507 
0.496 
0.491 
0.488 
0.486 


0.555 
0.528 
0.515 
0.508 
0.503 
0.498 


0.569 
0.539 
0.526 
0.518 
0.512 
0.506 


0.587 
0.557 
0.543 
0.533 
0.525 
0.515 


0.600 

0.571 
0.557 
0.545 
0.536 
0.527 


0.619 

0..589 
0..574 
0.561 
0.551 
0.540 


0.608 
0.591 
0..578 
0.567 
0..5.56 



Example. Required the total heat above 32°F. in a pound of steam 
at 100 lbs. per sq. in. pressure above a vacuum and with 100°F. of super- 
heat. 

From Table No. 44, page 96 of Properties of Saturated Steam, we 
find that one pound of saturated steam at 100 pounds per sq. in. pres- 
sure contains 1186.3 B. T. Us. From Table No. 46, page 99, Specific 
Heat of Superheated Steam, we find the specific heat of superheated 
steam at 100 lbs. per sq. in. pressure and 100°F. of superheat to be 0.534. 
Then the heat required to superheat one lb. of the steam will be 
0.534 X 100° =53.4 B. T. U's. 

Total heat above 32°F. = 1186.3 + 53.4 = 1239.7 B. T. U's. 

To find the factor of evaporation of steam superheated 100°F., if 
the feed water temperature is taken as 170°F., proceed as follows: From 
Table No. 44, page 96, Properties of Saturated Steam, the heat of the 
liquid of water at 60°F. is found to be 169.9 B. T. U's. Subtract this 
amount from the total heat above 32°F. of the superheated steam (1239.7) 
and divide the remainder by 970.4, the latent heat of evaporation of 
steam at 212°F. The quotient will be the factor of evaporation required. 

1239.7 - 169.9 

970^ = 1-1"2 

THE MOTION OF STEAM. 



The flow of steam under pressure into an atmosphere of a less 
pressure, increases as the difference of pressure is increased, until the 
external pressure becomes only 58 per cent of the absolute pressure in the 
boiler. The flow of steam is neither increased nor diminished by the fall 



102 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



of the external pressure below 58 per cent, or about j of the inside 
pressure, even to the extent of a perfect vacuum. In flowing through a 
nozzle of the best form, the steam expands to the external pressure, and 
to the volume due to this pressure, so long as it is not less than 58 per 
cent of the internal pressure. For an external pressure of 58 per cent, 
and for lower percentages, the ratio of expansion is 1 to 1.624. The 
following table. No. 48, is selected from Mr. Brownlee's data exempli- 
fying the rates of discharge, under a constant internal pressure, into 
various external pressures: 



Table No. 48 
OUTFLOW OF steam; from a given initial pressure into various 

LOWER PRESSURES. 
D. K. C. 



Absolute Pressure 


External Pressure 








Discharge per 


in Boiler in Lbs. 


in Lbs. 


Expansion in 


Outflow at Con- 


of Outflow, 


of Orifice per 
Minute. 


Per Square Inch. 


per Square Inch 


Nozzle 


stant Density. 


Expanded. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Ratio 


Ft. per Sec. 


Ft. per Sec. 


Lbs. 


75 


74 


1.012 


227.5 


230. 


16.68 


75 


72 


1.037 


386.7 


401. 


28.35 


75 


70 


1.063 


490. 


521. 


35.93 


75 


65 


1.136 


660. 


749. 


48.38 


75 


61.62 


1.98 


736. 


876. 


53.97 


75 


60 


1.219 


765. 


933. 


56.12 


75 


50 


1.434 


873. 


1252. 


64. 


75 


45 


1.575 


890. 


1401. 


65.24 


75 


13.46 (58%) 


1.624 


890.6 


1446.5 


65.3 


75 


15 


1.624 


890.6 


1446.5 


65.3 


75 





1.624 


890.6 


1446.5 


65.3 




HOTEL VAN NUYS, LOS ANGELES, CAL. 
CONTAINS 200 H. P. OF HEINE BOILERS. 



HELIOS 



103 



When, on the contrary, steam of varying initial pressure is discharged 
into the atmosphere — pressures of which the atmospheric pressure is not 
more than 58 per cent — the velocity of outflow at constant density, that 
is, supposing the initial density to be maintained, is given by the formula — 

V = 3.5953 VIT 
where V = the velocity of outflow in feet per minute, as for steam of the 
initial density, h = the height in feet of a column of steam of the given 
absolute initial pressure of uniform density, the weight of which is equal 
to the pressure on the unit of base. 

The following table is calculated from this formula. 

Table No. 49 

OUTFLOW OF STEAM INTO THE ATMOSPHERE. 
D. K. C. 



Absolute Initial Pressure 


External Pressure 




Velocity of Out- 


Actual Velocity 


Discharge per 


in Pounds per 


in Pounds per 


K atio of Expan- 


flow at Constant 


of Outflow, 


Square Inch of 


Square Inch. 


Square Inch. 


sion in Nozzle. 


Density. 


Expanded. 


Orifice per Min. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Ratio. 


Ft. per Sec. 


Ft. per Sec. 


Lbs. 


2.5.37 


14.7 


1.624 


863 


1401 


22.81 


30 


14.7 


1.624 


867 


1408 


26.84 


40 


14.7 


1.624 


874 


1419 


35.18 


45 


14.7 


1.624 


877 


1424 


39.78 


50 


14.7 


1.624 


880 


1429 


44.06 


60 


14.7 


1.624 


885 


1437 


52.59 


70 


14.7 


1.624 


889 


1444 


61.07 


75 


14.7 


1.624 


891 


1447 


65.30 


90 


14.7 


1.624 


895 


1454 


77.94 


100 


14.7 


1.624 


898 


1459 


86.34 


115 


14.7 


1.624 


902 


1466 


98.76 


135 


14.7 


1.624 


906 


1472 


115.61 


155 


14.7 


1.624 


910 


1478 


132.21 


165 


14.7 


1.624 


912 


1481 


140.46 


215 


14.7 


1.624 


919 


1493 


181.58 



CONDENSATION OF STEAM IN PIPES. 



When steam pipes are exposed to a temperature less than that of 
the steam within, condensation takes place more or less rapidly, accord- 
ing to the condition of the surfaces and the temperature and rate of motion 
of the surrounding medium. 

Experiments made by different parties in still air gave the following 
results. 



104 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



Table No. 51 
CONDENSATION IN UNCOVERED PIPES. 



OBSERVER 


Difference of 
Temperature of 
Steam and Air 


Steam Condensed per Square 
Foot per Hour, per 1°F 


B. T. U. Lost per 
Square Foot per Hour, 
per 1"F . 


Tregold 

Burnat 


161°F. 
196. 6°F. 
151°F. 
168°F. 


0.0022 lb. 
0.0030 lb. 
0.00217 lb. 
0.0020 lb. 


2.100 

2.864 


Clement 

Grouvelle 


2.071 
1.909 


Average for steam of 20 lbs. 
absolute pressure 


169°F. 


0.00235 lb. 


2.236 



We further give an abstract of the results of a careful series of tests 
made by Mr. George M. Brill, M. E., in 1895. with the best modern 
coverings, and with the most accurate instruments. The steam pressure 
carried ran between 110 and 119 lbs. per square inch, and the tempera- 
ture of the air varied from 50° to 81°F. in the various tests. 

For the purposes of these tests about 60 feet of standard 8-inch 
wrought pipe, coupled together, in order to make it smooth and regular, 
was suspended where it could not be subjected to currents of air. In 
order to get the steam as dry as possible it was sent through a separator 
on its way to the test pipe, and in the short connection between the sepa- 
rator and the pipe was placed a throttling calorimeter. The test pipe 
had an inclination of one foot in its entire length, which insured drainage 
of all the water of condensation to the lower end, at "which point the 
receiver was connected, and into which the water gravitated as rapidly 
as formed. The water was measured in this receiver, which consisted 
of four feet of 12-inch pipe, with graduated water glasses attached near 
the top and bottom. The same volume of water was allowed to collect 
each time, was measured under the steam pressure, and blown from the 
receiver at the end of the run. A careful determination was made of the 
amount of water collected by weighing the same volume while cold, and 
correcting for difference in weight due to the difference in temperature 
for the respective runs. 

The tests were made upon a scale large enough — in fact, upon a 
pipe of the size and length which is very common in the average power 
plant — with sufficient care, and in a manner to insure accuracy in the 
results obtained, and are consequnetly of much interest and value to all 
users of steam. 

The results reduced to the proper units are given in Table No. 52 
below, and may be taken as fairly representative of the best modern prac- 
tice. Of course, whenever steam pipes are placed where they are ex- 



HELIOS 



lo; 



posed to currents of air, the amount of condensation will be some greater 
than the tabular numbers. 

This table also gives the saving in pounds of steam, and in dollars 
and cents due to the use of coverings. This saving is based on the 
assumption that coal costs $2.44 per ton, and adding 12 per cent for cost 
of firing, and taking 7 lbs. water per lb. of coal as an evaporative figure, 
which are rough approximations to average American conditions. 

Table No. 52 

SHOWING RADIATION DUE TO BARE AND COVERED PIPES, AND SAVING DUE 

TO COVERINGS. 



KINDS OF COVERING 



5 CO Q <u 

c ^, ^ h 



6 o •=■ g 

D.U. Q 



C 3 M 
D CT U I 
T3 CO Q ! 

U n.S,.i 
B ' 



o — 



^. o tc 
mo--. 



CO 



— u. 
o 

o j; 

c 3 ra 

CO >-H 

.« o <" 
> ,-1 o. 



Bare Pipe 

Magnesia ' 

Rock Wool 

Mineral Wool 

Fire Felt 

A/Ianville Sectional 

Manville Sectional and Hair Felt 

Manville Wool Cement 

Champion Mineral Wool 

Hair Felt 

Riley Cement 

Fossil Meal 



2 . 7059 
.3838 
.2556 
.2846 
.5023 
.3496 
.2119 
.3448 
.3166 
.4220 
.9531 
. 8787 



.003107 
. 000432 
.000285 
.000311 
.000591 
. 000409 
.000243 
.000410 
.000364 
. 000472 
.001089 
.001010 



635,801 
670,666 
662,957 


$110.82 
116.90 
115.55 


603,389 
645,174 


105.17 
112.45 


682,930 


119.03 


646,488 
654,197 


112.68 
114.03 


625,376 
479,960 
500,284 


109 . 00 
83.66 
87.20 



The presence of sulphur in the best coverings and its recognized 
injurious effects, makes it imperative that moisture must be kept from 
the coverings, for if present, will surely combine with the sulphur, thus 
making it active. This could be stated in other words, keep the -pipes 
a7id covering in good repair. Much of the inefficiency of coverings is 
due to the lack of attention given them; they are often seen hanging 
loosely from the pipe which they are supposed to protect. 

All coverings should be looked after at least once a year and given 
necessary repairs, refitted to the pipe, the spaces due to shrinkage taken 
up, for little can be expected from the best non-conductors if they are 
allowed to become saturated with water, or if air currents are permitted 
to circulate between them and the pipe. 





iSgS^r 



a ar 




|1 

■llllll iiiilillid^ 
llllHillllllllll 

iiiiiiaiiiinjiii 

p;:^HuiiiiiiMiiiii 

iiJ'illMillliiifJ 





OLD NATIONAL BANK BUILDING, SPOKANE, WASH. 
CONTAINS 500 H P. OF HEINE BOILERS. 



HELIOS 107 

As a very rough approximation we may say that each 10 square 
feet of uncovered pipe will condense, in winter, 105 lbs. of steam during 
a day of ten hours. Under the same conditions, the same pipe pro- 
tected with the best covering will condense approximately 8. lbs. steam. 

In summer these figures will be reduced respectively to 80 lbs. and 
6}/2 lbs. of steam. 

Moisture in steam at the end of a long pipe line is often erroneously 
attributed to priming of the boiler; whereas, it is really due to condensa- 
tion. The amount of steam condensed is really but a very small propor- 
tion of the total steam passing through the pipe, but gradually collecting 
at some point in the line, it is carried along in a body at intervals, pro- 
ducing the effects of entrained water. 

Mr. Henry G. Stott, Supt. M. P., I. R. T. Co., New York, con- 
ducted a series of tests to determine the relative efficiencies of pipe cov- 
erings. His method consisted in coupling up about two hundred feet of 
two-inch iron pipe in three lines and mounting them on wooden horses 
about three and one-half feet from the floor, the three lines of pipe being 
approximately four feet apart and four feet from the nearest wall, in 
order to avoid any errors due to heat convection and radiation. 

Sections fifteen feet in length were marked off on the straight por- 
tions of the pipe, and so arranged as not to include any pipe couplings 
or bends; two feet from each end of each section heavy potential wires 
were soldered on to the pipe, and at the extreme end of the pipe 1,500,000 
c. m. copper insulated cables were soldered on, the openings in the pipe 
having been previously closed by means of a standard coupling and plug. 
One of these cables ran direct to one terminal of a 250 K. W., 250 volt 
steam driven, direct coupled exciter, which was solely devoted to furnish- 
ing current for the test, and which could have its voltage varied within 
wide limits so as to furnish any current up to one thousand five hundred 
amperes. The cable connected to the other end of the pipe was then con- 
nected to three ammeter shunts in series, in order to enable the readings 
to be easily checked, after which it was carried through a circuit breaker 
and switch to the other exciter terminal. 

The method of testing was to put a current of sufficient quantity 
through the pipe to heat it to say two hundred and twenty degrees F., 
and keep this current on for a sufficient length of time to enable all sec- 
tions to maintain a constant temperature (this period was found to be 
about ten hours) when readings of the milli-volt-meter were taken on 
each section with simultaneous ammeter readings. 

A constant temperature having been obtained, it is evident that 
the watts lost in each section give an exact measure of the energy lost 



108 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 



in maintaining a constant temperature, and from the watts lost tlie B. 
T. U. are readily calculated. Table No. 53 gives results of the tests: 

Table No. 53 
ELECTRICAL TEST OF STEAM PIPE COVERINGS. 









B. T. U. 


% Heat 


Covering 




Average 
thickness. 


loss per 
sq. ft. at 
100 lbs. pres. 


saved by 
covering. 


Solid Cork S 


sctional 


1.68 


1,672 


87.1 


85% Magnesia 


ii 


1.18 


2,008 


84.5 


Solid Cork 


a 


1.20 


2.048 


84.2 


85% Magnesia 


a 


1.19 


2,130 


83.6 


Laminated Asbestos Cork 


li 


1.43 


2,123 


83.7 


85% Magnesia 


a 


1.12 


2,190 


83.2 


Asbestos Air Cell 


a 


1.26 


2,333 


82.1 


Asbestos Sponge Felted 


" 


1.24 


2,556 


80.3 


Asbestos Air Cell (Long) 


a 


1.70 


2,750 


78.8 


"Asbestocel" (Radial) 


a 


1.22 


2,801 


78.5 


Asbestos Air Cell (Long) 


" 


1.29 


2,812 


78.4 


"Remanit" (Silk) Wrapped 




1.51 


1,452 


88.8 


85% Magnesia 2" Sectional 


and i" Block 


2.71 


1,381 


89.4 


a u ti 11 


1" Plaster 


2.45 


1,387 


89.3 


u a c)_-, ir a 




2.50 


1,412 


89.1 


2-1" 




2.24 


1,465 


88.7 


u a 9// u 




2.24 


1,555 


88.0 


li a 2 " " 




2.21 


1,568 


87.9 


Bare Pipe (Outside Tests) 






13,000 






EN ROUTE FROM CAR TO FOUNDATION, 
FOR FOX HALL PRESSED BRICK CO., PASSAIC, N. J. 



HELIOS 109 

BOILER TESTING. 

A Committee of the American Society of Alechanical Engineers re- 
vised the 1885 code and reported an amended code at the De- 
cember, 1898, meeting of the Socity, to be known as the Code 
of 1898. This committee recommended that, as far as possible, the 
capacity of a boiler be expressed in terms of the number of pounds of 
water evaporated per hour, from and at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, although 
they said it was not expedient to abandon the widely recognized measure 
of capacity expressed in terms of horsepower. 

BOILER HORSE POWER VERSUS ENGINE HORSE POWER. 

A boiler horse-power, as defined by the Society, is equivalent to 34.5 
lbs. of water per hour evaporated from and at 212°F. This is equivalent 
to 34.5x970.4 B. T. U's. = 33,478.8 B. T. U. This is merely a conven- 
tional statement of the capacity as the boiler does no work. The engines 
run by such a boiler may deliver a horse-power on anywhere from 8.5 lbs. 
to 50 lbs. of steam per hour. On these bases the boiler horsepower would 
be equivalent to from 4 engine horsepower to .7 engine horsepower. 

It is also practically equivalent to an evaporation of 30 pounds of 
water from a feed water temperature of 100 degrees Fahrenheit into steam 
at 70 pounds pressure. The committee also indorsed the statement of 
the committee of 1885 concerning the commercial rating of boilers, chang- 
ing it slightly, to read as follows: 

"A boiler rated at any stated capacity should develop that capacity 
when using the best coal ordinarily sold in the market where the boiler is 
located, when fired by an ordinary fireman, without forcing the fires, 
while exhibiting good economy; and, further, that the boiler should de- 
velop at least one-third more than the stated capacity when using the 
same fuel and operated by the same fireman, the full draft being employed 
and the fires being crowded; the available draft at the damper, unless 
otherwise understood, being not less than 3^ inch water column." 

RULES FOR CONDUCTING BOILER TESTS. 
Code of 1898. (Abridged.) 

I. Determine at the outset the specific object of the proposed trial, 
whether it be to ascertain the capacity of the boiler, its efficiency as a 
steam generator, its efiiciency and its defects under usual working con- 



110 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

ditions, the economy of some particular kind of fuel, or the effect of 
changes of design, proportion, or operation; and prepare for the trial 
accordingly. 

II. Examine the boiler, both outside and inside; ascertain the dimen- 
sions of grates, heating surfaces, and all important parts; and make a 
full record, describing the same, and illustrating special features by 
sketches. The area of heating surface is to be computed from the out- 
side diameter of water-tubes and the inside diameter of fire tubes. 

III. Notice the general condition of the boiler and its equipment, 
and record such facts in relation thereto as bear upon the objects in view. 

IV. Determine the character of the coal to be used. For tests of the 
efficiency or capacity of the boiler for comparison with other boilers, the 
coal should, if possible, be of some kind which is commercially regarded 
as a standard. 

For New England and that portion of the country east of the Alle- 
gheny Mountains, good anthracite ^gg coal, containing not over 10 per 
cent of ash, and semi-bituminous Clearfield (Pa.), Cumberland (Md.), 
and Pocahontas (Va.) coals are thus regarded. West of the Allegheny 
Mountains, Pocahontas (Va.) and New River (W. Va.) semi-bituminous, 
and Youghiogheny or Pittsburg bituminous coals are recognized as stand- 
ards.* There is no special grade of coal mined in the Western States 
which is widely recognized as of superior quality or considered as a stand- 
ard coal for boiler testing. Big Muddy lump, an Illinois coal mined in 
Jackson County, 111., is suggested as being of sufficiently high grade to 
answer the requirements in districts where it is more conveniently ob- 
tainable than the other coals mentioned above. 

V. Establish the correctness of all apparatus used in the test for 
weighing and measuring. These are: 

1. Scales for weighing coal, ashes, and water. 

2. Tanks, or water meters for measuring water. Water meters, 
as a rule, should only be used as a check on other measurements. For 
accurate work, the water should be weighed or measured in a tank. 

3. Thermometers and pyrometers for taking temperatures of air, 
steam, feed-water, waste gases, etc. 

4. Pressure gauges, draft gauges, etc. 

*These coals are selected because they are about the only coals which contain the 
essentials of excellence of quality, adaptability to various kinds of furnaces, grates, 
boilers, and methods of firing, and wide distribution and general accessibility in the 
markets. 



HELIOS 111 

The kind and location of the various pieces of testing apparatus 
must be left to the judgment of the person conducting the test; always 
keeping in mind the main object, i. e., to obtain authentic data. 

VI. See that the boiler is thoroughlv heated before the trial to its 
usual working temperature. If the boiler is new and of a form provided 
with a brick setting, it should be in regular use at least a week before the 
trial, so as to dry and heat the walls. If it has been laid oflF and become 
cold, it should be worked before the trial until the walls are well heated. 

VII. The boiler and connections should be proved to be free from 
leaks before beginning a test, and all water connections, including blow 
and extra feed pipes, should be disconnected, stopped with blank flanges, 
or bled through special openings beyond the valves, except the particular 
pipe through which water is to be fed to the boiler during the trial. 
During the test the blow-off and feed pipes should remain exposed. 

If an injector is used, it should receive steam directly through a felted 
pipe from the boiler being tested. 

See that the steam main is so arranged that water of condensation 
can not run back into the boiler. 

VIII. Starting and Stopping a Test. — A test should last at least 
ten hours of continuous running, but, if the rate of combustion exceeds 
25 pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour it may be stopped 
when a total of 250 pounds of coal has been burned per square foot of 
grate surface. The conditions of the boiler and furnace in all respects 
should be, as nearly as possible, the same at the end as at the beginning 
of the test. The steam pressure should be the same; the water level 
the same; the fire upon the grates should be the same in quantity and 
condition; and the walls, flues, etc., should be of the same temperature. 
Two methods of obtaining the desired equality of conditions of the fire 
miay be used, viz: those which were called in the Code of 1885 "the stand- 
ard method" and "the alternate method," the latter being employed 
where it is inconvenient to make use of the standard method. 

IX. Standard Method. — Steam being raised to the working pressure 
remove rapidly all the fire from the grate, close the damper, clean the 
ash pit, and as quickly as possible start a new fire with weighed wood and 
coal, noting the time and the water level while the water is in a quiescent 
state, just before lighting the fire. 

At the end of the test remove the whole fire, which has been burned 
low, clean the grates and ash pit and note the water level when the v/ater 
is in a quiescent state, and record the time of hauling the fire. The 
water level should be as nearly as possible the same as at the beginning 




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HELIOS 113 

of the test. If it is not the same, a correction should be made by compu- 
tation, and not by operating the pump after the test is completed. 

X. Alternate Method. — The boiler being thoroughly heated by a 
preliminary run, the fires are to be burned low and well cleaned. Note 
the amount of coal left on the grate as nearly as it can be estimated; 
note the pressure of steam and the water level, and note this time as the 
time of starting the test. Fresh coal which has been weighed should now 
be fired. The ash pits should be thoroughly cleaned at once after start- 
ing. Before the end of the test the fires should be burned low, just as 
before the start, and the fires cleaned in such a manner as to leave the 
bed of coal of the same depth, and in the same condition, on the grates 
as at the start. The water level and steam pressures should previously 
be brought as nearly as possible to the same point as at the start, and the 
time of ending of the test should be noted just before fresh coal is fired. 
If the water level is not the same as at the start, a correction should be 
made by computation, and not by operating the pump after the test is 
completed. 

XI. Uniformity of Conditions. — In all trials made to ascertain max- 
imum economy or capacity, the conditions should be maintained uni- 
formly constant. Arrangements should be made to dispose of the steam 
so that the rate of evaporation may be kept the same from beginning 
to end. 

Uniformity of conditions should prevail as to the pressure of steam, 
the height of water, the rate of evaporation, the thickness of fire, the 
times of firing and quantity of coal fired at one time, and as to the inter- 
vals between the times of cleaning the fires. 

XII. Keeping the Records. — Take note of every event connected 
with the progress of the trial, however unimportant it may appear. Re- 
cord the tim.e of every occurrence and the time of taking every weight 
and every observation. 

The coal should be weighed and delivered to the fireman in equal 
proportions, each sufficient for not more than one hour's run, and a fresh 
portion should not be delivered until the previous one has all been fired. 
The time required to consume each portion should be noted, the time 
being recorded at the instant of firing the last of each portion. It is 
desirable that at the same time the amount of water fed into the boiler 
should be accurately noted and recorded, including the height of the 
water in the boiler, and the average pressure of steam and temperature of 
feed during the time. In addition to these records of the coal and the 
feed water, half hourly observations should be made of the temperature 
of the feed water, of the flue gases, of the external air in the boiler-room, 



114 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

of the temperature of the furnace when a furnace pyrometer is used, 
also of the pressure of steam, and of the reading of the instruments for 
determining the moisture in the steam. A log should be kept on properly 
prepared blanks containing columns for record of the various observations. 

XIII. Quality of Steam. — The percentage of moisture in the steam 
should be determined by the use of either a throttling or a separating 
steam calorimeter. The sampling nozzle should be placed in the vertical 
steam pipe rising from the boiler. It should be made of 3^-inch pipe, 
and should extend across the diameter of the steam pipe to within half 
an inch of the opposite side, being closed at the end and perforated with 
not less than twenty \ inch holes equally distributed along and around 
its cylindrical surface, but none of these holes should be nearer than 
3/2-ii^ch to the inner side of the steam pipe. The calorimeter and the 
pipe leading to it should be well covered with felting. 

Superheating should be determined by means of a thermometer 
placed in a mercury well inserted in the steam pipe. The degree of super- 
heating should be taken as the difference between the reading of the 
thermometer for super-heated steam and the readings of the same ther- 
mometer for saturated steam at the same pressure as determined by a 
special experiment, and not by reference to steam tables. 

XIV. Sampling the Coal and Determining its Moisture. — ^As each 
barrow load or fresh portion of coal is taken from the coal pile, a repre- 
sentative shovelful is selected from it and placed in a barrel or box in a 
cool place and kept until the end of the trial. The samples are then 
mixed and broken into pieces not exceeding one inch in diameter, and 
reduced by the process of repeated quartering and crushing until a final 
sample weighing about five pounds is obtained, and the size of the larger 
pieces are such that they will pass through a sieve with 3^-inch meshes. 
From this sample two one-quart, air-tight glass preserving jars or other 
air-tight vessels which will prevent the escape of moisture from the 
sample, are to be promptly filled, and these samples are to be kept for 
subsequent determinations of moisture and of heating value and for 
chemical analyses. During the process of quartering, when the sample 
has been reduced to about 100 pounds, a quarter to a half of it may be 
taken for an approximate determination of moisture. This may be 
made by placing it in a shallow iron pan, not over three inches deep, 
carefully weighing it and setting the pan in the hottest place that can be 
found on the brickwork of the boiler setting or flues, keeping it there 
for at least 12 hours, and then weighing it. The determination of moist- 
ure thus made is believed to be approximately accurate for anthracite 
and semi-bituminous coals, and also for Pittsburg or Youghiogheny coal; 
but it can not be relied upon for coals mined west of Pittsburg, or for other 



HELIOS 115 

coals containing inherent moisture. For these latter coals it is important 
that a more accurate method be adopted. 

XV. Treatment of Ashes and Refuse. — The ashes and refuse are to 
be weighed in a dry state. For elaborate trials a sample of the same 
should be procured and analyzed. 

XVI. Calorific Tests and Analysis of Coal. — The quality of the fuel 
should be determined either by heat test or by analysis, or by both. 

The rational method of determining the total heat of combustion is 
to burn the sample of coal in an atmosphere of oxygen gas, the coal to 
be sampled as directed in Article XIV of this Code. 

The chemical analysis of the coal should be made only by an expert 
chemist. 

XVII. Analysis of Flue Gases. — The analysis of the flue gases is 
an especially valuable method of determining the relative value of dif- 
ferent methods of firing, or of different kinds of furnaces. In making 
these analyses great care should be taken to procure average samples — 
since the composition is apt to vary at different points of the flue. The 
composition is also apt to vary from minute to minute, and for this reason 
the drawings of gas should last a considerable period of time. Where 
complete determinations are desired, the analysis should be intrusted to 
an expert chemist. For approximate determinations the Orsat or the 
Hempel apparatus may be used by the engineer. 

XVIII. Smoke Observations. — It is desirable to have a uniform system 
of determining and recording the quantity of smoke produced where 
bituminous coal is used. The system commonly employed is to express 
the degree of smokiness by means of percentages dependent upon the 
judgment of the observer. The Committee does not place much value 
upon a percentage method, because it depends so largely upon the per- 
sonal element, but if this method is used, it is desirable that, so far as 
possible, a definition be given in explicit terms as to the basis and method 
employed in arriving at the percentage. 

XIX. Miscellaneous. — In tests for purposes of scientific research, 
In which the determination of all the variables entering into the test is 
desired, certain observations should be made which are in general unnec- 
essary for ordinary tests. These are the measurement of the air supply, 
the determination of its contained moisture, the determination of the 
amount of heat lost by radiation, of the amount of infiltration of air 
through the setting, and (by condensation of all the steam made by the 
boiler) of the total heat imparted to the water. 

As these determinations are not likely to be undertaken except by 
engineers of high scientific attainments, it is not deemed advisable to 
give directions for making them. 



116 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



XX. Calculations of Efficiency. — Two methods of defining and 
calculating the efficiency of a boiler are recommended. 

Heat absorbed per lb. combustible 

1. Efficiency of the boiler = 'zz \ ; TTTi \ ^"1" 

Heatmg value 01 1 lb. combustible 

Heat absorbed per lb. coal 

2. Efficiency of the boiler and grate = ~ : ; ^ ^ ,, : 

Heatmg value 01 1 lb. coal 

The first of these is sometimes called the efficiency based on com- 
bustible, and the second the efficiency based on coal. The first is rec- 
ommended as a standard of comparison for all tests, and this is the one 
which is understood to be referred to when the word "efficiency" alone is 
used without qualification. The second, however, should be included in 
a report of a test, together with the first, whenever the object of the test 
is to determine the efficiency of the boiler and furnace together with the 
grate (or mechanical stoker), or to compare different furnaces, grates, 
fuels, or methods of firing. 

The heat absorbed per pound of combustible (or per pound coal) 
is to be calculated by multiplying the equivalent evaporation from and 
at 212 degrees per pound combustible (or coal) by 970.4. 




THREE 326 H. P. HEINE BOILERS, YOKKAICHI ELEC. LT. CO., 
YOKKAICHI, JAPAN. 



HELIOS 



ii: 



XXI. The Heat Balance. — An approximate "heat balance," or 
statement of the distribution of the heating value of the coal among the 
several items of heat utilized and heat lost may be included in the report 
of a test when analyses of the fuel and of the chimney gases have been 
made. It should be reported in the following form: 

HEAT BALANCE, OR DISTRIBUTION OF THE HEATING VALUE OF THE 

COMBUSTIBLE. 



Total heat value of 1 lb. of Combustible. . 



B. T. U. 



B. T. U. 



Per Ceut 



1. Heat absorbed by the boiler = evaporation from and at 212 degrees 

per pound of combustible X 970.4. 

2. Loss due to moisture in coal = per cent, of moisture referred to 

combustible . . 100 X[(212-c) +970.4+ 0.48 (T-212) ](t = 
temperature of air in the boiler-room, T = that of the flue 
gases). 

3. Loss due to moisture formed by the burning of hydrogen = per 

cent of hydrogen to combustible . . 100 X 9 X [ (212— t) + 

970 4 + 0.48 (T-212) ] 
4.* Loss due to heat carried away in the dry chimney gases = weight 

of gas per pound of combustible X 0.24 X (T — t). 

CO 
5.t Loss due to incomplete combustion of carbon = ~r^7y, — IT PO^ 

per cent C in combustible 

~ 100 ^ 10,150. 

6. Loss due to unconsumed hydrogen and hydrocarbons, to heating 
the moisture in the air, to radiation and unaccounted for. 
(Some of these losses may be separately itemized if data are 
obtained from which they may be calculated). 

Totals 



100.00 



*The weight of gas per pound of carbon burned may be calculated from the gas 

analysis as follows; 

11 C02 + 80 + 7 (CO + N). 
Dry gas per pound carbon = 



"in which C02,C0,0 



3 (C02 + CO) 

and N are the percentages by volume of the several gases. As the sampling and 
analyses of the gases in the present state of the art are liable to considerable errors, 
the result of this calculation is usually only an approximate one. The heat balance 
itself is also only approximate for this reason, as well as for the fact that it is not pos- 
sible to determine accurately the percentage of unburned hydrogen or hydrocarbons 
in the flue gases. 

The weight of dry gas per pound of combustible is found by multiplying the dry 
gas per pound of carbon by the percentage of carbon in the combustible and dividing 
by 100. 

tC02 and CO are respectively the percentage by volume of carbonic acid and 
carbonic oxide in the flue gases. The quantity 10,150 = No. heat units generated b}- 
burning to carbonic acid one pound of carbon contained in carbonic oxide. 

XXII. Report of the Trial. — The data and results should be reported 
in the manner given in either one of the two following tables, omitting 



118 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

lines where the tests have not been made as elaborately as provided for 
in such tables. Additional lines may be added for data relating to the 
specific object of the test. 

The Short Form of Report, Form No. 2, is recommended for com- 
mercial tests and as a convenient form of abridging the longer form for 
publication when saving of space is desirable. 

Form No. 2 

DATA AND RESULTS OF EVAPORATIVE TEST. 

Arranged in accordance with the Short Form advised by the Boiler Test 
Committee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 

Made by on boiler, at to 

determine 

Grate surface sq. ft. 

Water-heating surface " 

Superheating surface " 

Kind of fuel 

Kind of furnace 



TOTAL QUANTITIES. 

Date of trial 

Duration of trial hours. 

Weight of coal as fired lbs. 

Percentage of moisture in coal per cent. 

Total weight of dry coal consumed lbs. 

Total ash and refuse " 

Percentage of ash and refuse in dry coal per cent. 

Total weight of water fed to the boiler lbs. 

Water actually evaporated, corrected for moisture or super-heat 

in steam " 

HOURLY QUANTITIES. 

10. Dry coal consumed per hour lbs. 

11. Dry coal per hour per square foot of grate surface " 

12. Water fed per hour " 

1.3. Equivalent water evaporated per hour from and at 212 degrees 

corrected for quality of steam " 

14. Equivalent water evaporated per square foot of water-heating 

surface per hour " 

AVERAGE PRESSURES, TEMPERATURES, ETC. 

15. Average boiler pressure lbs. per sq. in. 

16. Average temperature of feed water deg. 

17. Average temperature of escaping gases " 

18. Average force of draft between damper and boiler ins. of water 

19. Percentage of moisture in steam, or number of degrees of super- 

heating 

HORSE-POWER. 

20. Horse-power developed (Item 13 -^ 34j^) H. P. 

21. Builders' rated horse-power " 

22. Percentage of builders' rated horse-power per cent. 



HELIOS 110 



ECONOMIC RESULTS. 

23. Water apparently evaporated per pound of coal under actual con- 

ditions. (Item 8 -r- Item 3) lbs. 

24. Equivalent water actually evaporated from and at 212 degrees 

per pound of coal as fired. (Item 13 -r- ) (Item 5-^2) " 

25. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of 

dry coal. (Item 13 -^ Item 10) " 

26. Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 degrees per pound of 

combustible. [Item 13 -^ [ (Item 5 — Item 6) -H Item 2] " 

(If Items 23, 24 and 25 are not corrected for quality of steam, 
the fact should be stated.) 

EFFICIENCY. 

27. Heating value of the coal per pound B. T. U. 

28. Efficiency of boiler, (based on combustible) per cent 

29. Efficiency of boiler, including grate (based on coal) per cent 

COST OF EVAPORATION. 

30. Cost of coal per ton delivered in boiler-room $ 

31. Cost of coal required for evaporation of 1,000 pounds of water 

from and at 212 degrees $ 

The observations taken during the test should be recorded on a 
series of blanks prepared in advance, so as to be adapted for the purpose 
of the trial. The number of sheets and the number of items on each 
may be varied to suit the number of observers and the work designated 
for each. It will be found convenient and desirable to have the blanks 
for the coal and water observations independent of those for general 
observations and in general independent of each other. In all cases 
the first column of the coal record and of the water record should be de- 
voted to the time; stating, for instance, when a particular barrow of 
coal is dumped or a particular tank of water let down. Error is best 
avoided by having separate columns for gross weights, tare and net 
weights, even though the tare be constant. The feed-water record should 
contain a column for ternperature in case the same is taken in the tank, 
and also a column for height of water in glass gauge on boiler, which is 
to be noted when tank is emptied if the feed pump or injector is directly 
connected thereto. 

It is agreed that the coal should be weighed and the water measured 
or weighed at practically regular intervals, and that in every case the 
time be put down when a bucket of coal is dumped or a tank of water 
let down, when, by simple reference to the clock, all disputes as to neg- 
lected tallies will be eliminated. 

To' the report are appended a number of suggestions as to the modus 
operandi of making certain ones of the various determinations, but while 
of great value, these cannot be printed in this volume, because of lack 
of space. 



120 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



THE ENERGY STORED IN STEAM BOILERS. 

R. H. T. 

A steam boiler is not only an apparatus by means of which the po- 
tential energy of chemical affinity is rendered actual and available, but it 
is also a storage reservoir, or a magazine, in which a quantity of such 
energy is temporarily held; and this quantity, always enormous, is di- 
rectly proportional to the weight of water and of steam which the boiler 
at the time contains. The energy of gunpowder is somewhat variable, 
but a cubic foot of heated water under a pressure of 60 or 70 lbs. per 
square inch has about the same energy as one pound of gunpowder. At 
a low red heat water has about 40 times this amount of energy. Follow- 
ing are presented the weights of steam and of water contained in each of 
the more common forms of steam boilers, the total and relative amounts 
of energy confined in each under the usual conditions of working in every 
day practice, and their relative destructive power in case of explosion. 




TWO 300 H. P. HEINE BOILERS WITH MARINE SETTING, 
FOR DREDGE BOAT ON N. Y. BARGE CANAL. 



HELIOS 



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HELIOS 



123 



THE BOILER. 

THE modern boiler is one which successfully fulfills several conditions, 
which are demanded by the best practice. Briefly, these condi- 
tions are economy of fuel, safety and durability of the boiler, 
economy of space occupied, accessibility for both internal and external 
cleaning. The successful fulfillment of each of these points is depend- 
ent on the compliance with certain fundamental principles, which are 
given below in a concise form. 

ECONOMY OF FUEL. 

That boiler, which will deliver the greatest quantity of dry steam 
for each pound of fuel burned in the furnace, other conditions being 
equal, is obviously the most economical in the use of fuel. 

To secure this result three conditions must be met: — 

First: Complete combustion of the fuel must be secured; in other 
words, the furnace must be properly designed. Sufficient time must 
be allowed for the gases from the fuel to be properly burned before coming 
in contact with the heating surface, which, considered in relation to the 
hot gases, is the cooling surface, of the boiler. The furnaces of the great 
majority of boilers are still fired by hand, a flat stationary or shaking 
grate being used. A fairly deep fire box, as measured from the boiler 
to the grate surface, should be provided, in which, above the fuel, the 
combustible gases can continue burning. It is of the greatest importance 
that there should also be provided a spacious combustion chamber, in 
which the burning of the mixture of air and gases can be completed, thus 
giving the time element required before the cooling process commences. 
To cool these gases before this combustion is complete means a serious 
loss in economy due to the escaping of unburned hydrocarbons. If 
this process of combustion 
takes place under a fire brick 
roof as well as between fire 
brick walls it is -greatly bene- 
fited. 

Second: The hot gases 
must be properly brought in 
contact with the heating sur- 
faces. There are two methods 
of doing this, (a) by causing 
the gases to travel parallel 
to the heating surface, (Fig. 
1), (b) by causing them to Fig. i. 




124 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



travel at approximately right angles to the surface (Fig. 2). The 
first is the one in universal use in connection with the oldest and still 
most widely used type of 
boiler, the horizontal return 
tubular. Long experience, as 
well as numerous experiments, 
show this to be the correct 
practice and that a larger 
amount of heat is absorbed 
per unit of surface exposed 
than where the gases are ap- 
plied as in the second meth- 
od. (See Engineering Record 
of February, 1898, p. 258). 

Third: The water in the boiler must have a rapid and positive 
circulation in order to take up the heat as rapidly as possible, the steam 
thus generated being replaced at once by more water, thus preventing 
the overheating of the metal as well as reducing the temperature of the 
gases to as low a point as possible before they pass away from the boiler. 
Another factor affecting the economy of fuel is the necessity of causing 
the steam to pass into the piping without any entrained moisture, since 
any such moisture carries with it a considerable amount of heat, which 
not only can do no useful work but is likely to do positive injury of a 
mechanical nature. 




SAFETY AND DURABILITY OF THE BOILER. 

The proper design of the structure of a boiler is a complicated and 
delicate matter. There are so many places where it is absolutely impos- 
sible to calculate the stresses that the element of judgment is of great 
importance. There are many generally recognized rules for determining 
the strength of the principal parts and the tendency is to lay down regula- 
tions covering every possible condition, which regulations should be based 
on a combination of theory, practice and judgment. The boiler rules 
recently issued by the State of Massachusetts are by far the best that have 
as yet appeared. 

The four main points to be observed in making a boiler safe and 
durable are: 

First: All parts which are subjected to any stresses whatever, 
whether due to internal pressure of the steam or to the weight of the 
boiler itself, should be made of material of the very best quality and pre- 
ferably of such a nature that the quality can be determined with absolute 



HELIOS • 125 

certainty. Consequently the best open hearth steel or forged metal of 
undoubted quality should be used for all such parts. The use of cast 
iron in the construction of a boiler for any parts subjected to any of the 
stresses above mentioned should be studiously avoided. Its use in parts 
subject to tensile stresses has been prohibited by the American Boiler 
Manufacturer's Association since 1889. 

Second: The parts should be designed and proportioned with 
regard to the stresses which they will be called upon to sustain. For 
economical reasons each part should be made as strong as every other 
part, giving due consideration, however, to the placing of excess strength 
where any deterioration is likely to take place. 

Third: The workmanship should be of the best. As a rule the 
more machine work that can be done the better, on the principle that a 
machine designed to do a certain work properly can be depended on to 
do that work in a far more uniform manner than when done by hand. 
Fourth: Ample provision should be made to permit the unavoidable 
movements due to expansion and contraction to take place without 
straining the boiler or disturbing the brick setting. 

The American Boiler Manufacturers' Association at their Convention 
in St. Louis in 1898 adopted specifications covering the details of manu- 
facture of boilers and have from time to time since modified these, which 
we here publish in an abbreviated form as issued by the Committee under 
authority of the Association. 

UNIFORM AMERICAN BOILER. SPECIFICATIONS 
ADOPTED BY THE 
AMERICAN BOILER MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION. 

(See Proceedings 1889, pp. 49, 50, 66-81, 84-88. 

(See Proceedings 1897, pp. 42-54, 61-77, 207-208.) 

(See Proceedings 1898, pp. 49-100.) 

(See Proceedings 1905. p. 164.) 

(See Proceedings 1909, pp. 108-111.) 

(See Proceedings 1910, pp. 77, 78.) 

(At the Tenth Annual Convention of the American Boiler Manufactur- 
ers' Association, held at St. Louis, Mo., October 3-6, 1898, were unani- 
mously adopted a complete set of boiler specifications, known as the Uni- 
form American Boiler Specifications. These contain in addition to the 
requirements as to materials, methods and calculations, many reasons, argu- 
ments and explanations. The chairman of the committee was instructed 
to prepare an abridged form containing only the mandatory clauses. 
This after submission to the other members of the committee and approval 
by them is here published.) 



126 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



I. MATERIALS. 

1. Cast Iron — Should be of soft, gray texture and high degree of 
ductility. To be used only for hand-hole plates, crabs, yokes, etc., and 
manheads. It is a dangerous metal to be used in mud drums, legs, necks, 
headers, manhole rings or any part of a boiler subject to tensile strains; 
its use is prohibited for such parts. 

2. Steel — Homogeneous steel made by the open hearth or crucible 
processes, and having the following qualities, is to be used in all boilers. 

T. S. 
Flange or Boiler Steel 55000 to 65000 lbs. 

When it is stipulated that the plates are to be flanged, the physical 
properties shall be the same as required for Fire Box Steel. 

T. S. 

Fire Box Steel 52000 to 62000 lbs. 

Extra Soft Steel 45000 to 55000 lbs. 

Elongation in 
8 inches. 

Flange or Boiler Steel 25% 

Fire Box Steel 26% 

Extra Soft Steel 28% 

Chemical Requirements. 
Sul. Phos. 

Flange or Boiler Steel | 

Fire Box Steel > .03% .04% 

Extra Soft Steel ) 

For all plates the elastic limit to be at least one-half the ultimate 
strength; percentage of manganese and carbon left to the judgment of 
the steel maker. 

Test Section to be 8 inches long, planed or milled edges; its cross 
sectional area not less than one-half of one square inch, nor width less than 
the thickness of the plate. 

Steel up to ^2 inch thickness must stand bending double and being 
hammered down on itself; above that thickness it must bend round a 
mandrel of diameter of one and one-half times the thickness of plate down 
to 180 degrees. All without showing signs of distress. 

Bending test piece to be in length not less than sixteen times thick- 
ness of plate, and rough, shear edges milled or filed off. Such pieces to 
be cut both lengthwise and crosswise of the plate. 



HELIOS 127 

AH tests to be made at the steel mill. Three pulling tests and three 
bending tests to be made from each heat. If one fails the manufacturer 
may furnish and test a fourth piece, but if two fail the entire heat to be 
rejected. 

Certified copies of tests to be furnished each member of A. B. M. A. 
from heats from which his plates are made. 

3. Rivets to be good charcoal iron, or of soft, mild steel having 
the same physical and chemical properties as the fire box plates, and must 
test hot and cold by driving down on an anvil with the head in a die; by 
nicking and bending, by bending back on themselves cold, without devel- 
oping cracks or flaws. 

4. Boiler Tubes, of charcoal iron or mild steel specially made for 
the purpose, and lap welded or drawn; they should be round, straight, 
free from scales, blisters and mechanical defects, each tested to 500 pounds 
internal hydrostatic pressure. 

This fact and manufacturer's name to be plainly stenciled on each 
tube. 

Standard Thicknesses by Birmingham wire gauge to be: — 
No. 13 for tubes 1 in., 1}/^ in., 1}/^ in. and l^^ in. diameter. 
No. 12 for tubes 2 in., 23^ in. and 23^ in. diameter. 
No. 11 for tubes 2^ in., 3 in., 3}/£ '^^- ^t^^ ^/^ iii- diameter. 
No. 10 for tubes 3^ in., and 4 in. diameter. 
No. 9 for tubes 43/^ in., and 5 in, diameter. 

A test section cut from one tube taken at random from a lot of 
150 or less must stand hammering down cold vertically without cracking 
or splitting when down solid. 

Length of test pieces to be: — 

^ inch for tubes from 1 in. to 1^ in. diameter. 
1 inch for tubes from 2 in. to 23^ in. diameter. 
13^ inch for tubes from 2^ in. to 33^ in. diameter. 
13/^ inch for tubes from 33^ in. to 4 in. diameter. 
1^ inch for tubes from 43^ in. to 5 in. diameter. 

All tubes must stand expanding flange over on tube plate and bending 
without flaw, crack or opening of the weld. 

5. Stay Bolts to be made of iron or mild steel specially manufac- 
tured for the purpose, and must show on: 

Test Section 8 inches long, net: 

For Iron, tensile strength not less than 46,000 lbs.; elastic limit not 
less than 26,000 lbs.; elongation not less than 22 per cent for bolts of less 



> 




HOTEL RECTOR, NEW YORK, N. Y. 
CONTAINS 720 H. P. OF HEINE BOILERS. 



HELIOS 129 

than one (1) square inch area, nor less than 20 per cent for bolts one (1) 
square inch and more in net area. 

For Steel, tensile strength not less than 55,000 lbs.; elastic limit 
not less than 33,000 lbs.; elongation not less than 25 per cent for bolts 
of less than one (1) square inch area, nor less than 22 per cent for bolts 
one (1) square inch and more in net area. 

A bar taken from a lot of 1,000 lbs. or less at random, threaded with 
a sharp die "V" thread with rounded edges, must bend cold 180 deg. 
around a bar of same diameter without showing any crack or flaws. 

Another piece, similarly chosen, and threaded, to be screwed into 
well fitting nuts formed of pieces of the plates to be stayed, and riveted 
over so as to form an exact counterpart of the bolt in the finished structure ; 
to be pulled in testing machine and breaking stress noted; if it fails by 
pulling apart the tensile stress per square inch of net section is its measure 
of strength; if it fails by shearing the shear stress per square inch of mean 
section in shear is this measure. The mean section in shear is the pro- 
duct of half the thickness of the plate by the circumference at half height 
of thread. 

6. Braces and Stays. Material to be fully equal to stay bolt 
stock, and tensile strength to be determined by testing a bar not less 
than ten inches (10 in.) long from each lot of 1000 lbs. or less. 

II. V^ORKMANSHIP AND DIMENSIONS. 

7. Flanging, Bending and Forming to be done at a heat suited 
to the material, but no bending must be done or blow struck on any 
plate which no longer shows red by daylight at the working point and at 
least 4 inches beyond it. 

8. Rolling must be done cold by gradual and regular Increments 
from the straight plate to the exact circle required and the whole circum- 
ference including the lap rolled to a true circle. 

9. Bumped Heads uniformally dished to a segment of a sphere should 
have a thickness equal to that of a cylindrical shell of solid plate of same 
material, whose diameter is equal to the radius of curvature of the dished 
head. Rivet holes, man holes, etc., to be allowed for by proportionate 
increase in the thickness. 

10. Riveting. Holes made perfectly true and fair by clean cutting 
punches or drills. Sharp edges and burrs removed by slight counter 
sinking and burr reaming before and after sheets are joined together. 



130 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

Under side of original rivet head must be flat, square and smooth. 
For rivets ^ inch to yf inch diameter allow 13^ diameters for length of 
stock to form the head, and less for larger rivets. Allow 5 per cent more 
stock for driven head for button set or snap rivets. Use light regulation 
riveting hammers until rivet is well upset in the hole; after that snap and 
heavy mauls. For machine riveting more stock is to be left for driven 
head to make it equal to orignal head, as fixed by experiment. 

Total pressure on the die about 80 tons for 1}^ inch to 1}^ inch 
rivets; 65 tons for 1 inch; 57 tons for jf inch; 35 tons for ^^ inch rivets. 

Make heads of rivets equal in strength to shanks by making head at 
periphery of shank of a height equal to 3^ diameter of shank and giving a 
slight fillet at this point. 

Approximately make rivet holes double thickness of thinnest plate; 
pitch three times rivet hole; pitch lines of staggered rows 3^ pitch apart; 
lap for single riveting equal to pitch, for double riveting 1}/^ pitch, and 
3^ pitch more for each additional row of rivets; exact dimensions deter- 
mined by making resistance to shear of aggregate rivet section at least 
10 per cent greater than tensile strength of net or standing metal. 

11. Rivet Holes punched with good sharp punches and well fitting 
dies in A. B. M. A. steel up to ^ inch thickness; in thicker plates punch 
and ream with a fluted reamer or drill the holes. 

12. Drift Pin to be used only with light hammers to pull plates 
into place and round up the hole, but never to enlarge or gouge holes 
with heavy hammers. 

13. Calking to be done by hand or pneumatic hammer and Conery 
or round nosed tool. Avoid excessive calking; the fit must be made In 
the laying of the plates. The square nosed tool may be used for finish- 
ing with great care to avoid nicking lower plate. Calking edges must be 
prepared by bevel planing, shearing or chipping. 

14. Flat Surfaces. State the thickness of the plate "t" in six- 
teenths of an Inch, the pitch "p" In Inches, and use a constant: 

C^112 for plates j^ inch and under with screw stays with riveted ends. 
C=120 for plates over yg inch with screw stays with riveted ends. 
C=140 for all plates when In addition to screw threads in the plates 
a nut is used Inside and outside of each plate. 

When salt, acids or alkali are contained in the feed water, this latter 
construction is imperative. 

Rule — Multiply this constant "C" by the square of the thickness 
of the plate expressed In sixteenths of an inch, and divide by the square 



HELIOS 131 

of the pitch expressed in inches; the quotient is the safe working pressure 

J? D <" X t^ 

roRMULA: r^ — pi — ■ 

15. Tube Holes either punched 3'8 inch less than required diameter 
and reamed to full size, or drilled; then slightly countersunk on both sides; 
should be ^ inch to y6 inch larger than diameter of tube according to 
size of tube; if copper ferrules are used the hole to be a neat fit for the ferrule. 
Tube sheet to be annealed after punching and before reaming. 

16. Tube Setting. Ends of tubes to be annealed (at the Tube 
Mill) before setting. The tube to extend through the sheet yq inch for 
every inch of diameter. Expand until tight in hole and no more. On 
end exposed to direct flame, flange the tube partly over on sheet, finishing 
by beading tool which must not come in contact with the plate; expand 
slightly after beading. 

Copper ferrules No. 18 to 14 wire guage should be used in fire tube 
boiler on ends subject to direct heat. 

17. Riveted and Lap Welded Flues, as prescribed in Rule 11, 
Sections 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 of Regulations of Board of Supervising 
Inspectors of Steam Vessels, approved February, 1895. 

18. Corrugated Furnace Flues as prescribed in sections 14 and 
15 of the same Rule. 

19. Stay Bolts to be carefully threaded with sharp clean dies "V" 
thread with round edges; threading machine equipped with a lead screw; 
holes tapped with tap extending through both sheets to neat smooth fit, so 
that bolts can be put in by hand lever or wrench with a steady pull; 
^ diameter to project for riveting over; with hollow staybolts use slender 
drift pin in the bore while riveting and drive it home to expand the bolt 
after riveting. 

Height of nuts used on screw stays to be at least 50 per cent of diam- 
eter of stay. Largest permissible pitch for screw stays is 10 inches. 

20. Braces and Stays shall be subjected to careful inspection 
and tests as per section 6 and 2. Welding to be avoided where possible, 
but good clean welds to be allowed a value of 80 per cent of the solid bar. 
Rivets by which braces are attached, when the pull on them is other than 
at right angles to be allowed only half the stress permitted for rivets 
in the seams. 

21. Manholes should be flanged in, out of the solid plate, on a 
radius not less than three times the metal thickness to a straight flange; 
when the plate is 3^ inch or less in thickness a reinforce ring to be shrunk 
around it. Cast iron reinforce flanges never to be used. 





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HELIOS 133 

22. Domes to be avoided when possible; cylindrical portion to be 
flanged down to the shell of the boiler, and this shell flanged up inside 
the dome, or reinforced by a collar flanged at the joint, the flanges double 
riveted. 

23. Drums should be put on with collar flanges of A. B. M. A. 
steel, not less than ^ inch thick double riveted to shell and drum and 
single riveted to the neck or leg, or the flanges may be formed on these 
legs. 

24. Saddles or Nozzles to be of flanged steel plate or of soft cast 
steel, never of cast iron. 

III. factors of safety. 

25. Rivet Seams when proportioned as prescribed in Section 10 
with materials tested as per Sections 2 and 3 shall have 43^ as factor of 
safety; when not so tested, but inspection of materials indicates good 
quality, a factor of safety of 5 is to be taken, and at most 55,000 lbs. 
tensile strength assumed for the steel plate and 40,000 lbs. shear strength 
for the rivets, all figured on the actual net standing metal. 

26. Flat Surfaces proportioned as per Section 14 have in the 
constants there given a factor of safety of 5 or a little over. 

27. Bumped Heads proportioned as per Section 9 to be subject 
to a factor of safety of 5. 

28. Stay Bolts proportioned and tested as per sections 19 and 5 
to have a factor of safety of 5 applied to the lowest stress found. 

29. Braces and Stays. When tested as per Section 6 and 2 to be 
allowed a factor of safety of 5; when not so tested but careful inspection 
shows good stock they may be used up to 6,500 lbs. actual direct pull for 
wrought iron, and 8,000 lbs. for mild steel, all per square inch of actual 
net metal. 

IV. hydrostatic pressure. 

30. The Hydrostatic Test, to be made on completed boilers built 
strictly to these specifications, is never to exceed working pressure by 
more than one-third of itself and this excess limited to 100 lbs. per square 
inch. The water used for testing to have a temperature of at least 125 
deg. F. 

v. HANGING OR SUPPORTING THE BOILER. 

31. The boiler should be supported on points where there is the 
greatest excess of strength. Excessive local stresses from weight of boiler 



134 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

and contents must be avoided and distortion of parts prevented by using 
long lugs or brackets, and only half the stress which they may carry 
in the seams, to be allowed on rivets. 

The supports must permit rebuilding the furnace without disturbing 
the proper suspension of the boiler. The boiler should be slightly inclined 
so that a little less water shows at the guage cocks than at the opposite 
end. 

E. D. Meier, Chairman. 

Henry J. Hartley. 

John Mohr. 

James G. Mitchell. 

James C. Stewart. 

James Lappan. 

George N. Riley 

D. Connelly. 

ECONOMY IN SPACE OCCUPIED. 

The space occupied by a boiler of any given capacity, both as regards 
floor area and height, depends mainly on the compact arrangement of 
the heating surface, although the limiting factor as regards the floor 
area Is the extent of grate surface on which the fuel must be burned. 
There are certain ratios of grate area to heating surface that cannot be 
ignored, these ratios being dependent upon the nature and intensity of 
the draft, kind of fuel, grates, etc., and may range between 1 to 40 
and as high as 1 to 80 or even 100. Coupled with this is the consideration 
of that design which best provides cleaning facilities, and that boiler, which 
admits of the best combination of the various points In any given case, 
Is most ecomlcal of floor space. 

ACCESSIBILITY FOR CLEANING. 

Both internally and externally a boiler of any type will accumulate, 
to a greater or less extent, foreign matter, which is detrimental to its 
operation, and in many cases to its durability as well. On the interior 
surfaces there will be deposited from almost all kinds of water, solids 
which are normally in solution. A small amount of this accumulation, 
or scale as it is usually called, ordinarily does no particular harm but any 
great accumulation will prevent, to some extent, transfer of heat, which 
not only means a loss In economy but is likely to cause overheating of the 
metal with resulting damage to the boiler. If at least a portion of these 



HELIOS 135 

solids can be precipitated before entering the boiler it should by all means 
be done, but since it is rarely the case that even a small part of the impuri- 
ties are so extracted, it is highly desirable that means be provided for 
precipitating them inside the boiler in a special receptacle, so they can 
be blown out. It is not practicable, however, to precipitate all the solids, 
and hence it should be possible to get at all deposits of this nature on the 
interior of the boiler in order to positively, conveniently and quickly 
remove them. 

On the exterior surfaces of the boiler there will accumulate a certain 
amount of dust and soot, which is very detrimental to the economy of fuel 
and positive means should be provided for removing these accumulations. 
Preferably it should be possible to do this without interfering with the 
operation of the boiler, and any such means provided should avoid the 
necessity of admitting cold air in quantities. The admission of such 
cold air has a tendency to set up injurious strains in the structure due to 
the contractive and expansive movements, as well as to lower the economy 
due to the cooling of the hot gases. In short every part of the boiler 
should be open to inspection and so accessible that every part may be 
conveniently reached with the appropriate cleaning tool. 

SAFETY VALVES. 

The LTnited States Department of Commerce and Labor, through 
its Board of Supervising Inspectors, Steamboat-Inspection Service, has 
established rules relating to safety valves and from which the following 
are extracts: 

"The area of all safety valves on boilers contracted for or the con- 
struction of which commenced on or after June 1, 1904, shall be deter- 
mined in accordance with the following formula: 

W 
Formula: a = 0.2074 X — 

P 

Where a = area of safety valve, in square inches, per square foot of 
grate surface. 
W = pounds of water evaporated per square foot of grate surface 

per hour. 
P = absolute pressure pounds per square inch = working gauge 
pressure + 15. 
"From which formula the areas required per square foot of grate 
surface in the accompanying (Table No. 55) are found by assuming the 
different values of W and P. 

"The figures (a) in this table multiplied by square feet of grate 
surface give area of safety valve or valves required. 



136 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



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HELIOS 



137 



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o 


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u 


Oh 


fe 


< 


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o 

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o 
5 o 



he 



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COGOOCOCOOilNiOOOOGO^HCO'-HCO'-Ht^COCO'*© 
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HANDLING 260 H. P. HEINE BOILER ONTO STEAMBOAT CHESTER 

NEW ORLEANS, LA. 



HELIOS 139 

"When this calculation results in an odd size of safety valve, use 
next larger standard size. 

"To determine the area of a safety valve for a boiler using oil as fuel 
or for boilers designed for any evaporation per hour: 

"Divide the total number of pounds evaporated per hour by any 
number of pounds of water evaporated per square foot of grate surface 
per hour (W) taken from, and within the limits of the table. This will 
give the equivalent number of square feet of grate surface for boiler for 
estimating the area of valve. 

"The valves shall be so arranged that each boiler shall have at least 
one separate safety valve, unless the arrangement is such to preclude the 
possibility of shutting off the communication of any boiler with the safety 
valve or valves employed. 

"The use of two safety valves may be allowed on any boiler, pro- 
vided the combined area of such valves is equal to that required by rule 
for one such valve. Whenever the area of a safety valve, as found by 
the rule of this section, will be greater than that corresponding to 6 
inches in diameter, two or more safety valves, the combined area of 
which shall be equal at least to the area required, must be used. 

"Where escape pipes for safety valves are installed in steam vessels 
after July 1, 1910, the area of such pipes shall equal the combined area 
of all valves to which such pipes are connected. 

"The seats of all safety valves shall have an angle of inclination of 
45° to the center lines of their axes. 

LEVER SAFETY VALVES. 

"All common lever safety valves to be hereafter applied to the boil- 
ers of steam vessels must be constructed in material, workmanship, and 
principle according to the requirements for a safety valve referred to in 
this section. When this construction of a safety valve is applied to the 
boilers of steamers navigating rough waters, the link may be connected 
direct with the spindle of the valve: Provided, always, That the fulcrum 
or points upon which the lever rests are made of steel, knife or sharp 
edged, and hardened; in this case the short end of the lever should be 
attached directly to the valve casing. In all cases the link requires but 
a slight movement not exceeding one-eighth of an inch. 

The following are the rules in force in Massachusetts since 1909: 
"Each boiler shall have one or more safetv valves. 



140 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



"The minimum size of a direct spring-loaded safety valve shall be 
governed by the pressure allowed, as stated in the certificate of inspec- 
tion, and by the grate area of the boiler, subject to the following condi- 
tions and as shown by the accompanying table. 

"Condition A. — A single boiler, of two or more boilers connected 
to a common steam main and allowed the same pressure: the minimum 
size of safety valve for each boiler shall be governed by the pressure 
allowed, as stated in the certificate of inspection, and by the grate area 
of the boiler. 

"Condition B. — When two or more boilers, which are allowed dif- 
ferent pressures, are connected to a common steam main, the minimum 
size of each safety valve shall be governed by the pressure allowed, as 
stated in the certificate of inspection, and by the grate area of the boiler; 
and all safety valves shall be set at a pressure not exceeding the lowest 
pressure allowed. The aggregate valve area shall not be less than that 
required for the aggregate grate area, based on the lowest pressure allowed 
as shown by the table. (Table No. 56.) 

Table No. 56 

TABLE OF AREAS OF GRATE SURFACES, IN SQUARE FEET, FOR DIRECT 
SPRING-LOADED SAFETY VALVES. 



Maximum 


Pressure 


75 
W-3600 


W = 3600 


160 
^ = 3600 


160 
W = 3600 


^ 3600 


W ''^ 
^^ 3600 


allowed per Square Inch 
on the Boiler 


P- 40 
A= .401 


P= 65 
A= .329 


P= 115 

A= .297 


P= 140 
A= 244 


P= 190 
A= .224 


P= 240 
A= 213 






Zero 
to 


Over 25 

to 


Over 50 
to 


Over 100 
to 


Over 150 
to 


Over 200 
to 


Dia. of 

Valve 
Ins. 


Area of 
Valve in 
Sq. Ins. 


25 Lbs. 


50 Lbs. 


100 Lbs. 


140 Lbs. 


200 Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1 


.7854 


2.00 


2.50 


2.75 


3.25 


3.50 


3.75 


1^ 


1.2272 


3.25 


4.00 


4.25 


5.00 


5.50 


5.75 


iVi 


1.7671 


4.50 


5.50 


6.00 


7.25 


8.00 


8.50 


2 


3.1416 


8.00 


9.75 


10.75 


13.00 


14.00 


15.00 


23^ 


4.9087 


12.50 


15.00 


16.50 


20.00 


22.00 


23.00 


3 


7.0686 


17.75 


21.50 


24.00 


29.00 


31.50 


33.25 


3H 


9.6211 


24.00 


29.50 


32.50 


39.50 


43.00 


45.25 


4 


12.5660 


31.50 


38.25 


42.50 


51.50 


56.00 


59.00 


4)^ 


15.9040 


40.00 


48.50 


53.. 50 


65.00 


71.00 


74.25 


5 


19.6350 


49.00 


60.00 


66.00 


80.00 


88.00 


92.25 



"When the conditions exceed those on which the table is based, the 
following formula shall be used: 

. W70 
A= — r-X 11. 



HELIOS 141 

A = area of direct spring-loaded safety valve in square inches per 
square foot of grate surface. 

W = weight of water in pounds evaporated per square foot of grate 
surface per second. 

P = pressure (absolute) at which the safety valve is set to blow. 

"If more than one safety valve is used, the minimum combined area 
shall be in accordance with the table. 

"Each safety valve shall have full-sized direct connection to the 
boiler, and when an escape pipe is used it shall be full-sized and fitted 
with an open drain, to prevent water lodging in the upper part of safety 
valve or escape pipe. When a boiler is fitted with two safety valves on 
one connection, this connection to the boiler shall have a cross-sectional 
area equal to or greater than the combined area of the two safety valves. 
No valve of any description shall be placed between the safety valve and 
the boiler, nor on the escape pipe between the safety valve and the atmos- 
phere. When an elbow is placed on a safety valve escape pipe it shall 
be located close to the safety valve outlet, or the escape pipe shall be 
securely anchored and supported. 

"Safety valves having either the seat or disc of cast iron shall not 
be used. 

"Safety valves hereafter installed on boilers shall not exceed five 
inches in diameter, and shall be the direct spring-loaded type, with seat 
and bearing surface of the disc inclined at an angle of about forty-five 
degrees to the center line of the spindle; designed with a substantial 
lifting device so that the disc can be lifted from its seat with the spindle, 
not less than one-eighth the diameter of the valve, when the pressure on 
the boiler is seventy-five per cent of that at which the safety valve is set 
to blow." 

"Condition C. — When two or more boilers, which are allowed dif- 
ferent pressures, are connected to a common steam main, and all safety 
valves are not set at a pressure not exceeding the lowest pressure allowed, 
the boiler or boilers allowed the lower pressures shall each be protected 
by a safety valve or valves placed on the connecting pipe to the steam 
main; the area or combined area of the safety valve or valves placed on 
the connecting pipe to the steam main shall not be less than the area of 
the connecting pipe, except when the steam main is sm.aller than the 
connecting pipe, when the area or combined area of safety valve or valves 
placed on the connecting pipe shall not be less than the area of the steam 
main. Each safety valve placed on the connecting pipe shall be set at a 
pressure not exceeding the pressure allowed on the boiler it protects. 



HELIOS 143 

SUPERHEATERS. 

THE question as to the proper location in which to place the super- 
heating device has received a good deal of attention and been the 
subject of a great deal of experiment, but still remains perhaps a 
matter of discussion. First there is the possible location of the superheater 
in the main flue where it is exposed to the gases of combustion after they 
have left the boiler and are to be allowed to escape. At first thought this 
location seems attractive from the fact that any heat obtained in this 
way is a direct saving and that the superheating would cost nothing. 
Further consideration, however, shows that in a properly designed and 
operated plant practically no superheating at this point is possible for 
the reason that with a boiler operating under 150 lbs. pressure good 
practice would call for a release of the combustion gases at a tempera- 
ture not much exceeding 500°F., which temperature is necessary to 
maintain a natural chimney draft sufficiently strong to burn a common 
grade of bituminous coal. Again it will be found that while existing con- 
ditions may be such as to make it possible to install the superheater in 
the flue and show a small increase in economy due to the increase in 
temperature, yet, by placing an economizer in the same location, through 
which the feed water may be passed on its way to the boiler, a much 
greater gain would result. The reason for this is that the transfer of heat 
depends upon the diiference of temperatures. This difference in the 
case of an attempt to superheat the steam would be only 100°F. to 200°F., 
while in the case of feed water it would be from 200°F. to 400°F., so that 
the saving due to an economizer would be several times greater than 
could possibly result from the use of the superheater. 

A much used location for a superheater is inside the boiler setting 
at a point, in a water tube boiler, between the tubes and the shell. With 
this arrangement the steam is passed from the boiler, through the super- 
heater into the main steam piping, to the engines. The superheater at 
this point is exposed to a very high temperature and when starting up 
a cold boiler must be flooded with water until the boiler is generating 
steam freely. This flooding unquestionably causes a deposition of scale 
and at a location where it is impossible to be removed. The flooding 
and draining of the superheater is in no sense a difficult operation, but 
still it is one more operation to be performed when cutting a boiler into 
and out of service and best avoided if possible. Of course any superheat 
obtained at this location is obtained from the fuel burned in the furnace 
and the consumption of fuel will inevitably be correspondingly increased. 

Another plan is to place the superheater higher up but still within 
the boiler setting and entirely separated from the main gas passages. A 



144 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

small quantity of hot gas is conducted from the furnace or combustion 
chamber through a small duct in the walls, to this superheater chamber 
where it is brought into intimate contact with the superheating surfaces, 
afterward discharging into the main passage. By manipulating a damper 
the flow of gas is controlled to suit the degree of superheat desired. By 
using thermostatic control a more uniform superheating effect may be 
obtained than in any other way except possibly with the separately 
fired plan. The steam connection may or may not be arranged to by-pass 
the superheater. 

Still another practice and one for which there are many arguments, 
is to place the superheater outside the boiler entirely and over a sepa- 
rately fired furnace, passing either the whole or only a portion of the 
steam through it. In a large installation where the superheater would 
be of sufficient size to warrant separate attention, the independently 
fired superheater will give good economy. In a plant consisting of only 
one or two boilers the superheater would necessarily be quite small and 
might require more care than would be justified for its operation, as it 
would be necessary to watch it very closely. Either gas or oil should be 
used for fuel since they may be quickly and accurately controlled. Unless 
so handled it is quite uncertain whether the total efficiency of the steam 
plant would be increased at all and if such a superheater were placed 
where it would receive only average attention it is probable that its use 
would be unsatisfactory. 

In line with the foregoing we may divide the essential requisites for 
good design into three general classes. First, proper location for super- 
heating effect; Second, accessibility for cleaning and repairs; Third, 
safety and durability. 

PROPER LOCATION FOR SUPERHEATING EFFECT. 

The rate of absorption of heat in a superheater depends directly 
upon the difference in temperature between the hot gases and the steam. 
The less this difference the greater the amount of absorbing surface 
required for a given degree of superheat. The superheater therefore 
should be so placed that the heating gases are as near furnace temperature 
as practicable. Superheat in steam requires the burning of fuel and 
is not obtained without extra cost, contrary to the rather prevalent 
opinion. It is desirable to have the device so arranged that the temper- 
ature of the steam can be controlled, and to do this there must be some 
way of regulating the quantity of the heating medium, which means that 
the apparatus must be placed elsewhere than in the path of the boiler 
gases. This is advisable also because of the added resistance and con- 



HELIOS 145 

sequent reduction of draft due to the presence of the superheater In the 
path of the products of combustion. 

ACCESSIBILITY FOR CLEANING AND REPAIRS. 

Where solid fuels are used there will always be greater or less 
accumulations of soot and dust on the superheater, especially If com- 
bustion Is not perfect. As both soot and dust are excellent non-con- 
ductors of heat, in order to maintain the superheater at the point of 
its highest efficiency Its exterior surfaces must be kept free from such 
substances. Smooth surfaces are preferable to any others, as they are 
more readily cleaned. The easier cleaning devices are to manipulate 
and the more effective they are, the more certain It is that they will be 
used and that the efficiency of the superheater will be maintained. Every 
part of the surfaces must be reached and that without necessitating ex- 
tensive openings into the setting. Unless flooding Is necessary the Interior 
of the superheater cannot become covered with a deposit of any sort, 
but where water Is Introduced and heat applied there must inevitably 
be a gradual accretion that will In time have to be removed. If no 
means for doing this are provided burned tubes will be the result with 
damages and an extensive repair bill to pay. It cannot be expected 
that any apparatus subject to high temperatures will last indefinitely 
without attention and repairs of some sort. It is highly desirable there- 
fore to anticipate such needs by making It possible to minutely Inspect 
all parts without difficulty and to easily make such slight adjustments 
as will tend to avoid extensive repairs, and when such extensive work Is 
needed to do It without excessive cost or loss of time. 

SAFETY AND DURABILITY. 

Due to the very nature of the service, the boilers receive the most 
severe treatment of any part of a power plant, and owing to the low 
specific heat and slow heat absorbing qualltltes of steam, the super- 
heater Is even less favored than the boiler. It should therefore be con- 
structed only of such material and In such a way as will best resist the 
action resulting from varying temperature in the several parts and pos- 
sible excessive temperature of the metal. Undoubtedly a non-fracturable 
metal and seamless hot or cold drawn tubing of small diameter, make the 
best combination of materials for this use, when so designed that the 
expansion and contraction movements will not have an appreciable effect 
on the joints and seams. If care be taken to use only the best of their 
respective kinds both a safe and durable apparatus will result. 



It 






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BETZ BUILDING, PHILADELPHIA,, PA., 
CONTAINS 750 H. P. OF HEINE BOILERS. 



HELIOS 147 



CHIMNEYS, BREECHINGS AND DRAFT. 

TH E object of the chimney is to create draft and to carry off 
the waste products of combustion. The pressure or intensity 
of the draft is due to the difference in weight of the column of 
the hot gases inside the chimney and an equal column of the outside air. 

The amount of coal which can be burned per square foot of grate 
per hour depends directly upon the intensity of the draft and it is there- 
fore extremely important that the chimney be designed for the required 
conditions. 

Let H = height of the chimney in feet. 

To = absolute temperature of air at 32°F. 

Ti = absolute temperature of the gases inside the chimney. 

T2 = absolute temperature of the external air. 

W = weight of one cubic foot of air at 32°F. 

Wi = weight of one cubic foot of the chimney gases at 32°F. 

Then the weight of one cubic foot of the chimney gas at the given 
temperature will equal: Wi 7— at 14.7 pounds per square inch atmos- 
pheric pressure, and a column H feet high and one square foot in cross- 

section will weigh: H X Wi — - 

Ti 

The weight of one cubic foot of the external air at the given tempera- 
ture will equal: W -~- 

A column H feet high and one square foot in cross-section will weigh: 

T2 

The theoretical pressure of the draft in pounds per square foot will 
be the difference of these two weights or: 

1 2 1 1 

If To = 491.6, W = .0807, Wi = .084 on the basis of 300 cubic feet 
of air used per pound of coal, then 

491.6 491.6 , 

D = H(.0807 — r- - .084 ^,^) 
T2 1 1 

39.67 40.29 

= H ( — — ;— ) 

T2 1 1 



148 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



or reducing D to pressure in inches of water 

_ ,, , 7.63 7.94 

Di = H ( ~;^ - -^^) 



T2 



Ti 



If we consider that 50% excess air will be required or 225 cu. ft. 
per lb. of coal, Wi will equal .085 and the formula becomes 

i2 1 1 

Table No. 57 



DENSITY AND VOLUME OF AIR AND CHIMNEY GASES AT VARIOUS 
TEMPERATURES. 



Air 


Chimney Gases 


t 


V 


d 


t 


d 


t 


d 


t 


d 





11.581 


.08635 


200 


.06334 


430 


.04697 


660 


.03732 


5 


11.706 


.08542 


210 


.06240 


440 


.04644 


670 


.03699 


10 


11.832 


.08451 


220 


.06148 


450 


.04593 


680 


.03667 


15 


11.958 


.08362 


230 


.06059 


460 


.04543 


690 


.03635 


20 


12.084 


.08275 


240 


.05972 


470 


.04494 


700 


.03604 


25 


12.210 


.08190 


250 


.05888 


480 


.04447 


710 


.03573 


30 


12.336 


.08165 


260 


.05806 


490 


.04400 


720 


.03542 


32 


12.387 


.08073 


270 


.05727 


500 


.04354 


730 


.03513 


35 


12,463 


.08023 


280 


.05649 


510 


.04309 


740 


.03483 


40 


12.589 


.07944 


290 


.05574 


520 


.04257 


750 


.03454 


45 


12.715 


.07865 


300 


.05500 


530 


.04222 


760 


.03426 


50 


12.841 


.07788 


310 


.05429 


540 


.04180 


770 


.03398 


55 


12.967 


.07712 


320 


.05359 


550 


.04138 


780 


.03370 


60 


13.093 


.07638 


330 


.05291 


560 


.04098 


790 


.03344 


62 


13.143 


.07609 


340 


.05225 


570 


.04058 


800 


.03317 


65 


13.219 


.07565 


350 


.05161 


580 


.04020 


900 


.03072 


70 


13.345 


.07493 


360 


.05098 


590 


.03980 


1000 


.02863 


75 


13.471 


.07423 


370 


.05037 


600 


.03943 


1100 


.02679 


80 


13.597 


.07354 


380 


.04976 


610 


.03906 


1200 


.02518 


85 


13.723 


.07287 


390 


.04918 


620 


.03870 


1300 


.02374 


90 


13.849 


.07220 


400 


.04861 


630 


.03835 


1400 


.02247 


95 


13.975 


.07155 


410 


.04805 


640 


.03799 


1500 


.02132 


100 


14.101 


.07091 


420 


.04750 


650 


.03765 


1800 


.01849 


110 


14.353 


.06966 










2000 


.01699 



t = temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. 

V = volume in cubic feet. 

d = weight of one cubic foot. 



The direct connection that can he made from Heine boilers to the stack, 
together with a minimum loss by friction through the gas passages of the 
boiler, conduces to the maximum intensity of draft in the furnace. It is draft 
intensity that determines the amount of fuel which can be burned. 



HELIOS 



149 



Table No. 58 

THEORETICAL DRAFT, PRESSURE IN INCHES OF WATER. 
CHIMNEY 100 FEET HIGH. 



Temp. 




Te 


mperature of 


extern; 


il air. 


Bar. 14.7 lbs 


per sq 


. in. 




Chimney 





10 


20° 


30° 


40° 


50° 


60° 


70° 


80° 


90° 


100° 


200 


.456 


.421 


.387 


.355 


.323 


.294 


.265 


.237 


.210 


.184 


.160 


225 


.500 


.465 


.431 


.399 


.368 


.338 


.309 


.281 


.254 


.229. 


.204 


250 


.542 


.507 


.473 


.440 


.409 


.379 


.350 


.323 


.296 


.270 


.245 


275 


.579 


.544 


.510 


.478 


.446 


.417 


.388 


.360 


.333 


.307 


.283 


300 


.615 


.578 


.546 


.513 


.482 


.452 


.423 


.395 


.369 


.343 


.318 


325 


.648 


.613 


.579 


.546 


.515 


.485 


.456 


.429 


.402 


.376 


.341 


350 


.679 


.644 


.610 


.578 


.546 


.517 


.488 


.460 


.433 


.407 


.383 


375 


.709 


.673 


.639 


.607 


.576 


.546 


.517 


.489 


.463 


.437 


.412 


400 


.736 


.701 


.667 


.635 


.604 


.574 


.545 


.517 


.490 


.465 


.440 


450 


.787 


.752 


.718 


.685 


.654 


.624 


.595 


.568 


.541 


.515 


.490 


500 


.833 


.797 


.763 


.731 


.700 


.670 


.641 


.613 


.587 


.561 


.536 


550 


.874 


.838 


.804 


.772 


.731 


.711 


.682 


.654 


.628 


.602 


.577 


600 


.911 


.875 


.841 


.809 


.778 


.748 


.719 


.691 


.665 


.639 


.614 



XT 

For any other height multiply the tabular value by - — - where H 



100 



equals the height in feet. 



For any other pressure multiply the tabular pressure by- , where 
P equals the atmospheric pressure in lbs. per sq. in. 

Practically it has been found that rational formulae for the area 
or height of chimneys do not give good results, due to the fact that the 
constants to be used vary with the area of the air spaces through the 
grate, the kind of coal, and the rate of combustion. A constant deter- 
mined for a grate with 25% to 33% air space and a consumption of 8 lbs. 
to 15 lbs. of coal will not be suitable for a grate having 50% air space 
and burning 20 lbs. to 40 lbs. of coal. It is therefore Customary to use 
empirical formulae based on good practice and the following are some of 
the best known: 

Smith Kent 

0.0825 F 



A = 

h 



0.06 F 
E = - — -j — 

i/h 

, /0.06 F\2 



0.0825 F\2 

In which A = area of the stack in square feet. 
h = height of the stack in feet. 
F = pounds of coal burned per hour. 
G= grate area in square feet. 
E= A — 0.6VA. 
t ==^ stack temperature. 



Gale , 
A =0.07 F* 

_ 180/ F \2 



150 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



Gale's constants modified so that h = ^(7^ ) give better results 

according to modern practice. 

The formulae showing an interdependence of height and areas may 
lead to absurdities. It is better therefore to determine the height with a 
formula such as the modified Gale formula and then determine the area 
by Kent's. 

Practical and local considerations generally fix the height required. 
The chimney must be higher than the surrounding buildings or hills,, 
else whenever the wind comes from the direction of the higher object, 
the draft will be seriously impaired. 

T. F. J. Maguire in the Engineering Magazine for February, 1910, 
states that the draft on a water tube boiler is divided as follows: 

DRAFT REQUIRED IN THE FURNACE. 



Kind of coal 


Pound 


s of dry coal 
grate per 


burned per s 
hour. 


quare 


'oot of 




15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


Eastern bituminous coals 


.12 
.15 
.15 

.45 

.75 


.16 
.20 
.20 
.70 
1.30 


.20 

.25 

.28 

1.00 


.27 
.33 
.37 


.34 
.42 

.48 


.42 
.52 
.60 


.52 


Western bituminous coals 

Semi-bituminous coals 


.65 
.80 


Anthracite buckwheat No. 1 and larger 
Anthracite buckwheat No. 2 and No 3 





An allowance of 0.3 inch of water column seems to be ample for 
draft loss in boiler settings when boilers are developing not over 25% in 
excess of rated capacity, and 0.4 inch of water column for an overload 
of 50%. 

The loss in the breechings depends upon their length, the number 
of turns, and the cross-sectional area. The material also has an influ- 
ence upon the draft, the loss in a brick flue being about one-third more 
than in a steel or iron flue. For circular steel or iron breeching, hav- 
ing an area equal to the stack or larger, it is customary to allow 0.1 
inch loss of draft per 100 feet of length. For each right angled turn 
an additional draft of 0.05 inch of water column. 

For square or rectangular breechings (if adjacent sides do not differ 
more than in the ratio of 2 to 1 ) of steel or iron, the allowance given 
above for circular flues should be increased 25%. For brick or brick lined 
flues increase the above figures 30%. 

If we assume that, in any well designed stack, the available draft 
pressure is equal to 80% of the theoretical we may substitute this value 



HELIOS 



151 



in the formula for the pressure and solve for the requisite height. Then 
having determined the necessary height we may solve for the area by 
Kent's formula as before. 

In Table No. 59 appropriate heights and areas of chimneys are given 
for powers from 75 to 3100 horsepower; based on an assumed evaporation 
of 7 lbs. of water per lb. of coal, equivalent to 5 lbs. coal per H. P. per 
hour. 

Table No. 59 



CHIMNEY HEIGHTS AND AREAS. 



Area 


Dia. 
In. 






Height in 


Feet 






m 
Square 


75 80 


85 


90 95 


100 110 


120 


130 


140 


150 175 200 


Feet 


Commercial Horse Power 


3.14 
3.69 

4.28 
4.91 
5.59 


24 
26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
40 
44 
48 
54 
60 
66 
72 
84 
96 
108 
120 


75 
90 


78 

92 

106 

122 


81 
95 
110 
127 
144 
162 


98 
114 
130 
149 
168 
188 


117 
133 
152 
171 
192 
237 
287 


120 
137 
156 
176 
198 
244 
296 
352 
445 


164 

185 
208 
257 
310 
370 
468 
577 
697 


215 
267 
322 
384 
484 
600 
725 
862 
1173 


279 

337 

400 

507 

627 

758 

902 

1229 

1584 

2058 


413 

526 

650 

784 

932 

1270 

1660 

2102 

2596 


672 
815 
969 
1319 
1725 
2181 
2693 


1044 

1422 
1859 
2352 
2904 




6 31 








7.07 








8.73 


1 








10.56 


1 

1 










12.57 


1 










15.90 














19.63 


1 












23.76 
















28.27 
















38.48 


















50.27 
















1983 


63.62 


















2511 


78.54 


















3100 



If there are a large number of boilers in a plant it is frequently 
better to have a number of small chimneys than a single large one. If 
there is only one chimney, then it should be located as near the center of 
distribution as possible. 

The breeching should be as short and direct as possible. If a num- 
ber of boilers lead into the same breeching, the breeching should be de- 
signed for the required capacity near the stack and then gradually 
decrease in size as the number of boilers leading into it grows less. 



The shape and location of the uptake for the spent gases from a Heine 
Boiler is such that a simple and inexpensive breeching can be designed to 
meet the conditions imposed by practically any boiler room arrangement. 
Usually it can be placed above the boiler where it is out of the way as far as 
possible yet readily accessible for cleaning. See page 160. 




Pi 
w 

H-l 

I— I 

o 

W 

I— I 

W 

K 
w 



HELIOS 



153 



THE HEINE BOILER. 

TH E Heine Boiler is a modern boiler in every sense of the word, 
and was designed and arranged so as to comply to the greatest 
possible extent with all those principles enunciated in the general 
subject of Boilers, page 123. This end has been arrived at from years of 
experiment and improvements of which these principles have been the 
basis. With each succeeding year our success has been more pronounced 
and there will be no relaxation of our efforts to keep the Heine Boiler 
always a modern one. 

That a boiler which conforms to the principles laid down cannot 
be cheap in first cost must be obvious. If, however, the cheapness is 
measured by giving due weight to these cardinal conditions it must be 
evident that a high priced boiler may easily be the cheapest in the long 
run. We do not build a cheap boiler, and cannot, and do not care to 
compete with those that do. A continuously growing business has 
convinced us that it is not necessary, and that the demand for a boiler 
of the best quality is also growing. 

CONSTRUCTION. 



The Heine Boiler may be divided into three main parts, these being 
the shell, waterlegs, and tubes (Fig. 3). 

The shell is cylindrical in form, varying in diameter from 30 inches 
to 48 inches, and in length from about 17 
feet to 21.5 feet, depending upon the 
size of the boiler. This shell is made 
up of three sheets riveted in accord- 
ance with the generally accept- 
ed rules. The longitudinal 
seams are of the double strap 
butt joint type while the 
round about seams are all 
lapped with single or double 
riveting. The design of the 
riveting is dependent in all 
cases upon the pressure to be 
carried. The heads of the shells 
are dished to a radius equal to the 
diameter of the shell so as to require no Fig. 4a 




154 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 




Fig. 4b 



internal staying. Both front and rear 
heads are machine made with pressed 
steel flanges for the feed and blow- 
off connections. The rear head 
is provided with a flanged-in 
reinforced manhole (Fig. 4a) 
with a light and stiff pressed 
steel cover and yoke (Fig. 4b). 
At the top of the shell near the 
front end is cut the main steam 
outlet, a pressed steel saddle, 
(Fig. 6, page 157) being strongly 
riveted to the shell for the pur- 
pose of attaching the steam tee. 
The standard form of tee has flanged 
side and top outlets. Either one of 
these m^ay be used for the main steam 
connection, the safety valve being attached to the other. In the bot- 
tom of the shell near each end is cut the throat opening for the internal 
connection to the waterleg. To compensate for the metal cut away, 
forged steel throat stays (Fig. 7, page 157) bridging these openings are 
riveted on when the waterlegs are attached. Inside and near the bottom 
of the shell and parallel thereto is fastened a sheet steel mud drum, which 
is entirely closed with the exception of a small opening at the top near 
the front end. The feed pipe which passes through the front head of the 
shell enters the front end of the mud drum near the bottom, while the 
blov/-off connection which passes through the bottom of the rear head 
of the shell connects with the back end of the mud drum near the bottom. 
The theory of the operation of the mud drum will be described later. 
Over the throat opening at the front end slanting upwardly to the 
rear is placed a sheet iron deflection plate. The deflection plate is closely 
fitted to the front head and to that portion of the circumference of the 
shell with which it comes in contact. It extends several feet back of the 
throat opening and within a few inches of the top of the shell. Inside 
of the shell, just beneath the steam opening, and above the deflection 
plate is fastened the dry pan which is a shallow sheet iron box, in the 
sides of which are a large number of perforations. (Fig. 12 page 160) 

To each side of the exterior of the shell is attached a series of hooks 
which support the tile bars, the function of which will be described farther 
on. The waterlegs are made of two plates, termed respectively the 
tube sheet and the hand hole sheet. These plates are machine flanged, 
and joined together all around except at the top by a butt strap. Being 



-^-w;»,> 




::(i».» » • « 

: ^ ^^ ^ fr r 




Fig. 5. 

A DETAIL OF CONSTRUCTION. 



156 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

flat surfaces these waterlegs require staying to withstand the internal 
pressure, and for this purpose hollow staybolts (Fig. 8) are used, made 
of carefully tested mild steel tubing manufactured specially to our specifica- 
tions and carefully tested before being accepted. These are screwed 
into tapped holes in the two plates, the projecting ends being carefully 
upset on the outside. The tube holes and hand holes are carefully bored 
to exact diameters. The waterlegs are built complete, separately from 
the shell and then riveted thereto over the throat openings by hydraulic 
riveters (Fig. 5, page 155). 

The hand holes are closed by means of strong cast iron (Fig. 9) 
or drop forged steel (Fig. 10a and 10b) plates which are inserted from 
the inside so that the steam pressure tends to make them tighter and not 
to loosen them as in the case of plates which are applied from the out- 
side. These plates are held in position by means of yokes and bolts 
bearing against the outside of the waterleg sheet. The hand holes are 
round with the exception of a few at the top and bottom which are 
oval through which to introduce the round plates. Being round and 
accurately made all plates are absolutely interchangeable. 

Between the two waterlegs extend the tubes which are fastened 
in position by being expanded with the best type of roller expanders 
and slightly flared to increase the holding power. 

The material of which the shells and waterlegs are built is the best 
flange steel plate made especially to our own specifications and tested 
before shipment. These test reports are kept on file for customer's 
reference whenever desired. The tubes are made of the best mild steel, 
and also to our own specifications. From start to finish the work is done 
in our own shops, largely by hydraulically and pneumatically operated 
machinery, and always with the very best of materials and workmanship 
(Fig. 5). 

The above constitutes the boiler proper, but accompanying it is 
an artistic front (Fig. 11, page 158) made up of substantiaFsheet steel 
and castings, together with grates, buck staves and other parts necessary 
to properly set the boiler ready for the brick work, also a steam gage, 
safety valve, water column and trimmings, and feed and blow-off valves. 

SETTING AND OPERATION. 

(See Fig. 12, Page 160) 

When set up ready for service the Heine Boiler inclines downwardly 
from front to rear, one in twelve. The front end is supported on heavy 
cast iron columns, the rear end resting on rollers which in turn bear on 




Fig. 11. 
STANDARD FRONT OF HEINE BOILERS. 



HELIOS 159 

iron plates set in the top of the low and substantial brick wall which 
forms a portion of the setting. The manner in which a Heine Boiler is 
constructed makes this method of support the logical one and far better 
than hanging, since all strains due to the weight of the boiler and contents 
are avoided. In case, however, it is necessary to arrange the boiler so 
as to accommodate some stoking device stout steel brackets are riveted 
to the waterlegs, in turn resting on special heavy cast iron or steel columns, 
or an overhead support by which the boiler is suspended from above. 
To the cast iron columns are bolted the fire and ash door frames and other 
castings that make up the fire front, and behind which is built a substantial 
fire brick wall to pretect the whole from overheating. These castings 
also support the upper or ornamental front. On each side solid brick 
walls lined with fire brick are carried up to the height of the ornamental 
front and at both front and rear, returns are made which follow the curva- 
ture of the shell and waterleg, being supported by properly shaped metal 
supports that carry the weight of the brick work. The space between 
these metal supports and the boiler is packed full of asbestos fibre, thus 
preventing the ingress of air and any displacement of the brick work 
due to movements of the boiler, since everything is supported independently 
of the boiler and slightly away from it. The rollers, before mentioned, 
allow the expansion and contraction movements to take place without 
setting up injurious strains. 

On each side of the shell cast iron plates are placed, one end resting 
on the side wall, the other on the tile bar hereinbefore mentioned. These 
plates do not extend all the way back, openings being left on each side 
of the shell through which the gases of combustion pass upwardly and 
out through the smoke connections. Over the shell is built an arch of 
brick to prevent radiation loss. This arch in the up-take is built of fire 
brick. 

Supported by the boiler walls, and over the up-take openings, is 
placed a breeching hood which can be made of the necessary shape to 
connect with a breeching of whatever design may be required by the 
conditions under which the boiler is installed. 

Longitudinal and transverse anchor rods are built into the brick 
work, these being secured at each end of the setting and at several points 
on the sides to substantial rolled steel buck staves, thus binding the whole 
together. 

On the lower row of tubes, extending back within four or five feet 
of the rear end, are placed fire brick baffle tiling, and likewise on the upper 
row of tubes extending from the rear to within three or four feet of the 
front end. These together with the plates which rest on the tile bars 




Q 
< 

O 
2 



Q 
P 
H 

O 

o 



HELIOS 161 

above mentioned determine the path of the hot gases. Just behind the 
grates is placed a bridge wall only sufficiently high to hold the coal in 
place, thus providing ample area fur the passage of the gases between 
the top of the bridge wall and the tubes. Our standard practice is to 
furnish a stationary grate although any form of shaking grate or other 
furnace may be substituted if desired. The gases of combustion, however, 
whatever type of grate or furnace may be used, pass over the bridge wall 
into the large combustion chamber behind it where ample time is given 
for the complete combustion of the various constituent gases. These 
then turn upward back of the lower row of tiling into the nest of tubes, 
thence forward parallel to the tubes, upward again into the space beneath 
and around the shell, thence backward and upward through the up-take 
into the breeching The hot gases are broken up into numberless small 
streams that completely encircle the tubes, this being due to the very 
compact arrangement of the tubes, and it is during this passage that the 
greater part of the heat is absorbed The gases are further cooled in 
passing backward under the shell. 

The feed water enters the boiler through the front head, passing 
into the mud drum, which is entirely submerged, the water level being 
normally at about the center of the shell midway of its length. The 
water in the boiler when under steam is, of course, at the same tem- 
perature as the steam. The feed water when entering is relatively much 
colder than the water in the boiler, and hence flows along the bottom 
of the mud drum, being gradually heated up by the surrounding hot 
water to the temperature of this water (this makes it possible to actually 
force the Heine Boiler with feed water of any temperature from 32° up 
without injury). As this movement is very slow, time is given for the 
deposition of such substances as may be carried in suspension and also 
for the precipitation of much of the scale making impurities. Being 
entirely without contact with the fire, there is no tendency for this sludge 
to become baked and hard and it may be blown off through the pipe 
provided from the rear of the mud drum. The feed water as it becomes 
hot rises and flows out in a thin sheet through the opening in the front 
end of the mud drum, being carried by the circulation of the water in 
the boiler to the rear. It will be observed that owing to the position 
of the boiler there is a much deeper body of water in the shell at the rear 
than at the front, thus providing at all times a solid body of water to 
keep up the supply to the tubes where the steam is made. The water 
descends from the shell into the rear waterleg, thence into the various 
tubes, passing upwardly toward the front and absorbing in its passage 
the heat from the gases on the outside of the tubes, bubbles of steam being 
formed, which pass out of the tubes, together with the unevaporated 



162 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 




SIDE VIEW. 






o9o9o?o9c|og.9o9^9^o 
S93g§?m|f^o 

ooooooooooo 



o 



REAR END. 



FRONT END. 



Fig. 13. 



SHOWING THE APPLICATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE 
BAYER SOOT BLOWER SYSTEA/T. 



HELIOS 163 

water, into the front waterleg, thence upwardly into the shell. The 
large openings from the shell into the waterlog, or throat openings, while 
being the most constricted parts in the path of the circulating water, 
are so large that little or no real obstruction to a free flow is offered. 

In the sectional water tube boilers from six to twelve tubes discharge 
into a header which is connected to the shell by a single tube of the same 
diameter as the others, and through which all the others must discharge. 
Obviously the circulation must be greatly interfered with. In the Heine 
Boiler the throat areas are from 2 to 4 times as large. 

Owing to the great difference in volume caused by the expansion 
of the water into steam, the passage out through the waterleg is very 
rapid and the mixture of steam and water is thrown up with considerable 
force against the deflection plate, the function of which is to throw down 
the water allowing the steam to pass up into the steam space, thence 
over the upper end of the deflection plate through the holes in the dry pan 
to the steam outlet. Here again the larger throat areas of the Heine 
Boiler reduce the speed, thus giving drier steam. 

At the bottom of the rear waterleg is provided a valve for the purpose 
of draining the boiler. The steam connection of the water column is 
made at the top of the front head while the water connection is made 
at the top of the front waterleg. The steam gauge is piped from one of 
the fittings of the water column connection and is fastened in a promi- 
nent position in the middle of the ornamental front. 

The hollow stay bolts are utilized for the purpose of blowing accumula- 
tions of soot and dust off from the tubes. This is done by means of the 
Bayer Soot Blower System, which consists of a series of small nozzles 
inserted in the staybolts at the rear end of the boiler, with auxilliary sets 
of nozzles located so as to stir up accumulations in all corners. Through 
these nozzles are blown jets of steam, which create an intense momentary 
draft that dislodges and drags out all the dust and soot adhering to the 
surfaces to be cleaned or which obstruct the gas passages (Fig. 13.) This 
is done in a few minutes during the noon rest or just before or after clos- 
ing down at night. Those staybolts which are not thus utilized by the soot 
blower nozzles are closed by means of wooden or cast iron plugs. 

Cleaning doors on each side of the shell which take the place of a 
few of the plates above mentioned, provide means of access to the space 
over the upper tiling and beneath the shell so that accumulations of 
dust and soot at these points may be conveniently removed. 

A cleaning door placed in the rear wall on which the rear waterleg 
rests provides means of access to the combustion chamber so that ac- 
cumulations of dust at this point may be easily removed. 




FLANGING DEPARTMENT, HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. SHOP, 
ST. LOUIS, MO. 




DRIVING STAYBOLTS IN WATERLEGS, HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

ST. LOUIS, MO. 



HELIOS 165 

Through the manhole in the rear head of the shell the Interior of 
that part of the boiler can be thoroughly inspected and any necessary 
attention given to the mud-drum, deflection plate, etc. Through the 
hand holes which are opposite each tube a stream of water may be directed 
into and through the tubes for the purpose of washing them out, although 
in doing this it is not necessary to remove all the hand hole plates; one 
out of every four or five giving access to the several surrounding tubes. 

If, however, it is desired to scrape the tubes, each hand hole plate 
must be taken out to allow the introduction of the scraper. 
In both this and the washing-out process the hand hole plates 
on one end only need to be removed. Since only straight tubes 
are used it will easily be seen that there is no part of the 
interior of the boiler that cannot be reached, effectually cleaned and 
visually inspected so there is absolutely no uncertainty as to its condition. 
Likewise the entire exterior of the boiler can be reached for cleaning 
purposes and can also be inspected as to its condition. The operation 
of the renewing of a tube, the necessity for which is likely to occasionally 
arise with any boiler, is performed by loosening the ends of the tube 
where it is expanded into the tube-sheet, and removing same through 
the opposite hand hole. The new tube can then be inserted and expanded 
into place. Straight tubes of a commercial size are used, which can be 
readily obtained from any boiler maker or dealer in boiler supplies, or 
a few of our special quality can be carried on hand to meet possible 
emergencies, hence there need be no delay in making any such renewal 
should it become necessary. 

All the cleaning operations as well as the renewal of tubes are per- 
formed by men on the outside of the boiler, standing erect, and therefore 
in position to efficiently do the work in a convenient, comfortable and 
expeditious manner. 

There being no need for getting in between the rows of tubes from 
the sides or from above or below, these can be spaced quite closely to- 
gether. The shell, ^also, is no higher above the tubes than is necessary 
to give the required area to the gas passages. Hence the whole structure 
is very compactly designed requiring a minimum of head room. 

It will also be noted that all work about the boiler of whatever 
character, is performed from the front and rear, and that no openings 
whatever are required or made in the side walls to serve as a starting 
point for cracks. This permits as many boilers as may be desired being 
put in one battery, effecting a very material economy in floor space, 
reducing the cost of brick work for the boilers as well as the dimensions 
and consequent cost of the boiler house itself. See Page 122. 



166 HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

Heine Boilers may be arranged to suit the conditions of any plan. 
This is said advisably for with scarcely an exception every problem that 
has been presented has been satisfactorily solved. Owing to the infinite 
variety of arrangements possible it is quite impracticable to adequately 
illustrate the possibilities. Every type of mechanical furnace has been 
installed in connection with Heine boilers. It is possible and usual to 
place such furnaces entirely under the boiler, thus not taking up any 
more floor space than with hand firing. It is advantageous at times, 
however, to use an extension furnace or Dutch oven setting. Fig. 14 
to 19 show how the various types of stokers are applied and illus- 
trates also some departures from the usual and simplest practice. For 
the purpose of burning wood shaving, sawdust, tan bark, bagasse and 
similar fuels an extension Dutch oven is the best arrangement owing 
to the large furnace dimensions desirable and the convenience in feeding 
through the top, as illustrated In Fig. 19. 

MANUFACTURING FACILITIES. 

On his shop equipment depends the ability of the manufacturer 
to make his finished product of the highest quality of workmanship, 
and on it also depends his ability to promptly meet the deliveries called 
for by his contracts. Without the special tools required to economically 
perform the various operations of the manufacturing processes, both as 
regards the major and minor details, workmanship of the highest type 
cannot be executed. 

Years of experience in building boilers of only one kind tend to 
the development of numerous devices for performing economically, 
expeditiously, and perfectly, numerous little details of work that cannot 
possibly be as well done in other ways and with cruder apparatus. 

Complete equipment implies not only that required for the actual 
manufacturing processes but all of the necessary arrangements for promptly 
and cheaply handling both incoming raw material and outgoing finished 
product. 

On pages 2 and 6 are shown general views of the two large 
shops owned and operated by this Company. Both plants are of about 
equal capacity, although the one at St. Louis is of a much better design 
and construction, since it was built some ten years after the one at Phoenix- 
ville, and full advantage was taken of the experience gained from the 
earlier plant. Both shops, however, are fully equipped with the best 
electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic machinery as well as with cranes 
and other apparatus for handling the heavy weights involved in the 
manufacturing of our boilers. 



HELIOS 



1(37 




Fig. 14. 

HEINE BOILER SET WITH CHAIN GRATE TYPE OF STOKER, 
UNDERFLOOR ASH PIT AND TUNNEL. 



■^Ovxv^:^ x'^^'^^^'^^^'^^^^'^^ ■ ^^'^^^^^^^^^'^^ ^'■^^^^^^^''^'^^''''^^'-''^'^^'^^ 




HEINE BOILER SET WITH SIDE INCLINED GRATE TYPE OF STOKER. 



168 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 




-pr^^^^^;^^- 



.■?i5.--iSi?jfcV. 









Fig. 16. 

HEINE BOILER SET WITH UNDERFEED TYPE OF STOKER. 







Pa"?-"-??-* 



Fig. 17. 

HEINE BOILER SET WITH DOWN DRAFT FURNACE. 



HELIOS 



109 




HEINE BOILER SET WITH FRONT INCLINED GRATE TYPE OF STOKER. 




Fig. 19. 



HEINE BOILER SET WITH EXTENSION OR DUTCH OVEN FURNACE. 
FOR BURNING SAWDUST, RICE CHAFF, BAGASSE, ETC. 



170 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



Interspersed we show herein a number of views of the St. Louis 
shop from which may be gathered a fair idea of the character of the plants 
in which our manufacturing is carried on. 

IN GENERAL. 

A careful study of the various illustrations shown in connection 
with the descriptions and explanations will, no doubt, make plain all 
of the points brought out and we trust, convince the reader that our 
claims are well founded that the Heine Boiler is economical, safe, durable, 
adaptable to any purpose whatsoever for which high pressure steam is 
required, and also that the manufacturing facilities are such that the 
purchaser can feel assured that he will get material and workmanship 
which cannot be excelled. And further, that cheap, general imitations 
of inferior material and workmanship are not and cannot be worth as 
much as the product we offer. 

THE REAL AND ONLY HEINE BOILERS ARE BUILT BY THE 
HEINE SAFETY BOILER COMPANY ALONE. 




ERECTING DEPARTMENT, HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. SHOP, 
ST. LOUIS, MO. 




ERECTING AND TESTING FLOOR, HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. 

ST. LOUIS, MO. 



SHOP, 




HYDRAULIC RIVETERS, HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. SHOP, 
ST. LOUIS, MO. 




-44 



i 






HELIOS • 173 

THE HEINE SUPERHEATER. 

TH E Heine Superheater is offered to steam users only after a 
thorough test of some four or five years, during which time it has 
been demonstrated that repairs are practically nothing and that 
the sizes that we have determined upon for various capacities and 
degrees of superheat are liberal. 

We were in no haste to put the superheater on the market preferring 
to first perfect all details and offer to steam users only what we were sure 
would prove entirely satisfactory. We offer this device with full confi- 
dence that it will fulfill both our and their expectations. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

The Heine Superheater consists essentially of a header box of the 
same type of construction as the well known Heine Boiler water leg, 
into one side of which are inserted U tubes, made of 13/2-inch seamless, 
drawn, mild steel tubing, expanded into holes provided for them. Oppo- 
site the tubes in the other sheet of the header box are a series of hand 
holes closed by inside plates, which give access to the interior of the whole 
apparatus. 

The header box is made entirely of flange steel plate, and is so de- 
signed that it is entirely machine made. The hollow stay bolts, which 
hold the two sheets of the box parallel, are of the same size and material 
as those used in the construction of the boiler proper, and as in the case 
of the boiler, provide means for introducing the soot blower in order to 
keep the exterior surfaces of the superheater tubes clean. 

The interior of this box is divided into three compartments by 
means of light sheet iron diaphragms, which, being nicely fitted, are suffi- 
ciently steam tight to cause the steam to pass through the tubes. 
(Fig. 20.) 

The superheater is located at the side of the shell of the boiler toward 
the front and just above the last passage of the boiler gases, being sup- 
ported by special castings, which rest upon the boiler tile bar and brick 
setting. Depending on the capacity and degree of superheat desired, 
the device may be single and placed only on one side; or in two parts 
properly connected together, one on each side of the boiler, and above 
the waterline. (Fig. 21.) 

The whole is encased in brickwork with a fire brick roof carried by 
special T bars. 

A small flue, built in the side walls of the setting, carries the hot 
gases direct from the furnace into the superheater chamber, where they 






Pi 
w 
P-, 

o 
o 



HELIOS 175 

make two passes around the superheater tubes. The flow of these gases 
is controlled by means of a damper at the outlet. When closed the circu- 
lation is stopped, and as soon as the heat from the gases is absorbed, 
only saturated steam will be delivered. 

By opening the damper various degrees the flow of gases can be 
regulated so as to give any desired degree of superheat up to the capacity 
of the apparatus. Since the hot gases do not come into contact with 
the damper until after passing through the superheater, there is nc danger 
of overheating it. 

The usual steam outlet from the boiler proper is connected into the 
lower opening of the superheater box, the steam passing into the tubes 
of the lower compartment, thence through these tubes out into the middle 
compartment, whence they go into the second set of tubes connected 
with this space and through them issuing finally into the third or top 
compartment, thence out through the opening there into the general 
piping system. The effect is to thoroughly mix up the steam so that 
it is of a uniform temperature. Ordinarily it is not deemed necessary to 
provide a by-pass so as to enable the superheater to be cut out of service 
entirely, although such an arrangement can easily be provided if desired. 

As herein before stated, a superheater demands an expenditure of 
fuel. A proper regard for economy therefore is a determining factor 
in its location; but an equally important one is ease and certainty of 
cleaning and inspection. If placed in the path of all gases which pass 
through the boiler it is difficult, or practically impossible, to design the 
apparatus so that it can be thoroughly inspected and swept while in 
operation. But when placed as in our method it is always perfectly 
accessible for such inspection and cleaning, thus insuring efficiency and 
close regulation of temperature. 

It will be quite apparent that the advantage, due to our method of 
construction and location which permit thorough cleaning to be easily 
and expeditiously done, conduces to the economical use of the heat sup- 
plied to raise the temperature of the steam to the desired point. 

The superheater proper is built complete and tested at the shop 
so that it is ready for erection and use on arrival. 

Being located above and having no connection below the water 
line, it is never necessary to introduce any water, or, in other words, to 
flood the superheater, thereby absolutely preventing the accumulation 
of mud and scale on the interior surfaces. 

The regulating damper being small and easily operated, thermo- 
static control of the degree of superheat is easily adaptable or the regula- 



i-i ' fT/.n I i I 



o 

< 
1-1 

< 




Ph 

K 



HELIOS 



17' 



tion may be attained by hand since the damper rod extends to and is 
operated at the front. 

The exterior surfaces are perfectly smooth and hence accumulate 
soot to a minimum degree and are cleanable to a maximum degree, by 
means of the soot blower introduced through the hollow stay bolts, 
without in any way interfering with the operation of either boiler or 
superheater. 

Although not shown by the illustrations the front of the apparatus 
is closed in by means of a frame provided with doors, giving access to 
the header box and preventing radiation. 




BOILER ROOM OF POWER HOUSE, HEINE SAFETY BOH.ER CO. SHOP, 
ST. LOUIS, MO., EQUIPPED WITH HEINE SUPERHEATERS. 




HlBH 


Pi 


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H 


<?9BH 


2 


"flHI 


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vmami^^ 


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3 


W 


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w 




cJ 




d 




o 




■ o 




S^ 








§2 




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< pq 




J 




S^ 




O ^, 








i— 1 ^ 




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Q O 




z z 








o 




CIh H 




f^S 




O (v^ 








O ^ 




Ph !^ 




, E-H 




tl^ HH 




o^ 




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m [£i 




S *-' 




^ o 




H-; pq 




o , 




U H 




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w S 




O w 




Q E 




w . 




^ f^ 




Q ^ 




E 




^ l~~l 




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C4 




P 




O 




t, 




K 




h 








S 




Q 




H 




H 




H 








fZ 



HELIOS 



179 



Table No. 60 
Vulgar Fractions of a Lineal Inch in Decimal Fractions. 





Advancing by 


Thirty-seconds. 




Advancing by 


Odd S 


XTY-FOURTHS. 


5 

IS 


c 


*U C 


T3 

o 




"a c 
"u c 


3 
O 

to 


u c 
o 


=3 
>< 

in 


.1- 
o c 

Q " 
o 


1 




0.03125 


17 




0.53125 


1 


0.015625 


33 


0.515625 


2 


T^ 


0.0625 


18 


9 


0.5625 


3 


0.04687 


35 


0.546875 


3 




0.09375 


19 




0.59375 


5 


0.078125 


37 


0.578125 


4 


i 


0.125 


20 


5 

8 


0.625 


7 


0.109375 


39 


0.609375 


5 




0.15625 


21 




0.65625 


9 


0.140625 


41 


0.640625 


6 


f^ 


0.1875 


22 


11 
T6 


0.6875 


11 


0.171875 


43 


0.671875 


7 




0.21875 


23 




0.71875 


13 


0.203125 


45 


0.703125 


8 


1 


0.25 


24 


3 


0.75 


15 


0.234375 


47 


0.734375 


9 




0.28125 


25 




0.78125 


17 


0.265625 


49 


0.765625 


10 


T^ 


0.3125 


26 


1* 


0.8125 


19 


0.296875 


51 


0.796875 


11 




0.34375 


27 




0.84375 


21 


0.328125 


53 


0.828125 


12 


1 


0.375 


28 


7 
S 


0.875 


23 


0.359375 


55 


0.859375 


13 




0.40625 


29 




0.90625 


25 


0.390625 


57 


0.890625 


14 


7 


0.4375 


30 


15 
T6 


0.9375 


27 


0.421875 


59 


0.921875 


15 




0.46875 


31 




0.96875 


29 


0.453125 


61 


0.953125 


16 


h 


0.5 


32 


1 


1.000 


31 


0.484375 


63 


0.984375 




SHEET IRON DEPARTMENT, HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. SHOP, 

ST. LOUIS, MO. 




O 
< 

o 
o 

O 



pi; 
w 
1-1 

o 
w 



HELIOS 



181 



Table No. 61 
Lineal Inches in Decimal Fractions of a Lineal Foot. 



Lineal 




Lineal 




Lineal 






Inches. 


Lineal Foot. 


Inches. 


Lineal Foot. 


Inches. 


Lineal Foot. 




«\ 


0.001302083 


1 n 


0.15625 


61 


0.5416 




3-i 


0.00260416 


2 


0.16666 


Gf 


0.5625 




-I'li 


0.0052083 


2i 


0.177083 


7 


0.5833 




i 


0.010416 


2i 


0.1875 


71 


0.60416 






0.015625 


2f 


0.197916 


7* 


0.625 




1 
4 


0.02083 


2i 


0.2083 


7f 


0.64583 




-5_ 
16 


0.0260416 


2f 


0.21875 


8 


0.66667 




3 

8 


0.03125 


2! 


0.22916 


8i 


0.6875 




1% 


0.0364583 


2| 


0.239583 


8§ 


0.7083 




1 
2 


0.0416 


3 


0.25 


81 


0.72916 




A 


0.046875 


3i 


0.27083 


9 


0.75 




it 

s 


0.052083 


31 


C.2916 


Oi 


0.77083 




16 


0.0.572916 


3| 


0.3125 


91 


0.7916 




.1 

4 


0.0625 


4 


0.33333 


9f 


0.8125 




fl 


0.0677083 


4i 


0.35416 


10 


0.83333 




^ 


0.072916 


4| 


0.375 


lOi 


0.85416 




15 
16 


0.078125 


4| 


0.39583 


lOi 


0.875 




1 


0.0833 


5 


0.4166 


lOf 


0.89583 




H- 


0.09.375 


5i 


0.4375 


11 


0.9166 




U 


0.10416 


5i 


0.4583 


111 


0.9375 




]f 


0.114583 


51 


0.47916 


lU 


0.9583 




H 


0.125 


6 


0.5 


Hi 


0.9791 




If 


0.135416 


6i 


0.52083 


12 


1.0000 




li 


0.14583 

























50 H. P. HEINE BOILER INSTALLED 1886, LANGLES CRACKER 
FACTORY, BURNED 1908, NEW ORLEANS, LA. 




<; 

o 
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1-4 
o 
u 

p^ 

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w 
Q 



p 
o 
u 

o 

-< 

< 
Pi 
< 



HELIOS 



183 



Table No. 62 
Square Inches in Decimal Fractions of a Square Foot. 



Square 


Square 


j Square 


Square 


; Square 


Square 


Square 


Square 


Inches. 


Foot. 


Inches. 


Foot. 


: Inches. 


Foot. 


Inches. 


Foot. 


0.10 


0.0006944 


24.0 


0.16666 


65.0 


0.45138 


105.0 


0.72916 


0.15 


0.0010416 


25.0 


0.17361 


66.0 


0.45833 


106.0 


0.73611 


0.20 


0.001388 


26.0 


0.18055 


67.0 


0.46527 


107.0 


0.74305 


0.25 


0.0017361 


27.0 


0.18750 


68.0 


0.47222 


108.0 


0.75000 


0.30 


0.002083 


28.0 


0.19444 


69.0 


0.47916 


109.0 


0.75694 


0.35 


0.0024305 


29.0 


0.20138 


70.0 


0.48611 


110.0 


0.76388 


0.40 


0.002777 


30.0 


0.20833 


71.0 


0.49305 


111.0 


0.77083 


0.45 


0.00311249 


31.0 


0.21527 


72.0 


0.50000 


112.0 


0.77777 


0.50 


0.003472 


32.0 


0.22222 


73.0 


0.50694 


113.0 


0.78472 


0.55 


0.0038194 


33.0 


0.22916 


74.0 


0.51388 


114.0 


0.79166 


0.60 


0.004166 


34.0 


0.23611 


75.0 


0.52083 


115.0 


0.79861 


0.65 


0.0045138 


35.0 


0.24305 


76.0 


0.52777 


116.0 


0.80555 


0.70 


0.004861 


36.0 


0.25000 


77.0 


0.53472 


117.0 


0.81249 


0.75 


0.0052083 


37.0 


0.25694 


78.0 


0.54166 


118.0 


0.81944 


0.80 


0.005555 


38.0 


0.26388 


79.0 


0.54861 


119.0 


0.82638 


0.85 


0.0059027 


39.0 


0.27083 


80.0 


0.55555 


120.0 


0.83333 


0.90 


0.006250 


40.0 


0.27777 


81.0 


0.56249 


121.0 


0.84027 


0.95 


0.0065972 


41.0 


0.28472 


82.0 


0.56944 


122.0 


0.84722 


1.0 


0.006944 


42.0 


0.29166 


83.0 


0.57638 


123.0 


0.85416 


2.0 


0.01388 


43.0 


0.29861 


84.0 


0.58333 


124.0 


0.86111 


3.0 


0.02083 


44.0 


0.30555 


85.0 


0.59027 


125.0 


0.86805 


4.0 


0.02777 


45.0 


0.31249 


86.0 


0.59722 


126.0 


0.87500 


5.0 


0.03472 


46.0 


0.31944 


87.0 


0.60416 


127.0 


0.88194 


6.0 


0.04166 


47.0 


0.32638 


88.0 


0.61111 


128.0 


0.88888 


7.0 


0.04861 


48.0 


0.33333 


89.0 


0.61805 


129.0 


0.89583 


8.0 


0.05555 


49.0 


0.34027 


90.0 


0.62500 


130.0 


0.90277 


9.0 


0.06250 


50.0 


0.34722 


91.0 


0.63194 


131.0 


0.90972 


10.0 


0.06944 


51.0 


0.35416 


92.0 


0.63888 


132.0 


0.91666 


11.0 


0.07638 


52.0 


0.36111 


93.0 


0.64583 


133.0 


0.92.361 


12.0 


0.08333 


53.0 


0.36805 


94.0 


0.65277 


134.0 


0.93055 


13.0 


0.09027 


54.0 


0.37500 


95.0 


0.65972 


135.0 


0.93750 


14.0 


0.09722 


55.0 


0.38194 


96.0 


0.66666 


136.0 


0.94444 


15.0 


0.10416 


56.0 


0.38888 


97.0 


0.67361 


137.0 


0.95138 


16.0 


0.11111 


57.0 


0.39583 


98.0 


0.68055 


138.0 


0.95833 


17.0 


0.11805 


58.0 


0.40277 


99.0 


0.68750 


139.0 


0.96527 


18.0 


0.12500 


59.0 


0.40972 


100.0 


0.69444 


140.0 


0.97222 


19.0 


0.13194 


60.0 


0.41666 


101.0 


0.70138 


141.0 


0.97916 


20.0 


0.13888 


61.0 


0.42361 


102.0 


0.70833 


142.0 


0.98611 


21.0 


0.14583 


62.0 


0.43055 


103.0 


0.71527 


143.0 


0.99305 


22.0 


0.15277 


63.0 


0.43750 


104.0 


0.72222 


144.0 


1.0000 


23.0 


0.15972 


64.0 


0.41444 












O 

o 

p.; 



Q 
-< 

> 

u 

CO 

P 

o 

H 
pi! 

O 
U 

Q 

<l 

w 

C/3 
O 



o 

H 

CO 

p 

U 

u 

o 

H 

CO 

o 
P-. 



p 



HELIOS 



185 



Table No. 63 
Decimal Fractions of a Square Foot in Square Inches. 



Square 


Square 


Square 


Square 


Square 


Square 


Square 


Square 


Foot. 


Inches. 


Foot. 


Inches. 


Foot. 


Inches. 


Foot. 


Inches. 


0.01 


1.44 


0.26 


37.4 


0.51 


73.4 


0.76 


109.4 


0.02 


2.88 


0.27 


38.9 


0.52 


74.9 


0.77 


110.9 


0.03 


4.32 


0.28 


40.3 


0.53 


76.3 


0.78 


112.3 


0.04 


5.76 


0.29 


41.8 


0.54 


77.8 


0.79 


113.8 


0.05 


7.20 


0.30 


43.2 


0.55 


79.2 


0.80 


115.2 


0.06 


8.64 


0.31 


44.6 


0.56 


80.6 


0.-81 


116.6 


0.07 


10.1 


0.32 


46.1 


0.57 


82.1 


0.82 


118.1 


0.08 


11.5 


0.33 


47.5 


0.58 


83.5 


0.83 


119.5 


0.09 


13.0 


0.34 


49.0 


0.59 


85.0 


0.84 


121.0 


0.10 


14.4 


0.35 


50.4 


0.60 


86.4 


0.85 


122.4 


0.11 


15.8 


0.36 


51.8 


0.61 


87.8 


0.86 


123.8 


0.12 


17.3 


0.37 


53.3 


0.62 


89.3 


0.87 


125.3 


0.13 


18.7 


0.38 


54.7 


0.63 


90.7 


0.88 


126.7 


0.14 


20.2 . 


0.39 


56.2 


0.64 


92.2 


0.89 


128.2 


0.15 


21.6 


0.40 


57.6 


0.65 


93.6 


0.90 


129.6 


0.16 


23.0 


0.41 


58.0 


0.66 


95.0 


0.91 


131.0 


0.17 


24.5 


0.42 


60.5 


0.67 


96.5 


0.92 


132.5 


0.18 


25.9 


0.43 


61.9 


0.68 


97.9 


0.93 


133.9 


0.19 


27.4 


0.44 


63.4 


0.69 


99.4 


0.94 


135.4 


0.20 


28.8 


0.45 


64.8 


0.70 


100.8 


0.95 


136.8 


0.21 


30.2 


0.46 


66.2 


0.71 


102.2 


0.96 


138.2 


0.22 


•31.7 


0.47 


67.7 


0.72 


103.7 


0.97 


139.7 


0.23 


•33.1 


0.48 


69.1 


0.73 


105.1 


0.98 


141.1 


0.24 


34.6 


0.49 


70.6 


0.74 


106.6 


0.99 


142.6 


0.25 


36.0 


0.50 


72.0 


0.75 


108.0 


1.00 


144.0 



Hozu many large modern boiler plants are nozv constructed with old style 
flue and tubular boilers — boilers in which circulation is in spite of, and not 
because of, their design and construction? Among the big new installations 
there are twenty water-tube plants now to every one of the old style. Yet 
many small boiler users still fail to grasp the fact that the economy of water- 
tube boilers is ' a condition and not a theory. 






H 




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HELIOS 



187 



j2 

o 



> 

o 
U 






Square Measure. 


S 2>2 
(« en 


O(N00^OO(N00Tt< 

T-H CO 1.0 t^ Oi r- CO >o t^ 


i S3 


«D(MQO-t<OI>COSliO 
00 1^ "O -f CO --H XH-- 
co t- ^ 10 c: CO t^ -f< 

-H ^H ^- (M Ol CO CO 

000000000 
odddooodd 


>-H(NCOTt<i01>0000 


Sq. Yards 

to 
Sq. Meters. 


--HC^TtHiOOt^OOO— ( 
C0t^O^00^"-0:Z)(M 
OOOlocOi— lOQCOiO 

r-H cq CO ■TtH 10 10 l> 


S 2 2 


00^^(M>MCOCO-+i 

000000000 
cr. cci^ '-o 10 ~^ CO 01 '-t 

10 -H t^ CO 0; 'O ^ t- CO 
<MlOJ>OC^»OOOOCO 

T-l 1-1 --H r-( (N (M 


IT 

rr en 


ooot^o-^coM^o 
cor^.-HOC»cor^^io 

t^iOC^OOOiOCO'-HOO 


_o 2 _o 

iii 


0.3861 
0.7722 
1.1583 
1.5444 
1.9305 
2.3166 
2.7027 
3.0887 
3.4748 


O^IMCOCOTfiOOO 

T-toqco-^ioot^ooci 


14 

e" o- 


C5(X)l>tD>OTjHCO(M-H 
iM»OOOi-i-+t^OCOCO 
C2CCI:^l>-CCiiOiO'*'CO 
O^C^CO'^iOOt^OO 




C2001>tOiO'*fOlNi-l 
iO^t^C0OHOT-<I>C0 


(MiOtr^OiMiOOOOCO 

T-< rH ,-1 ^ (M (M 


•i 2 <S 


lOOtOOiOOiOOiO 

lOrtCOlMf^COOO'Tt.o 
-HCC^CCt^OOMCO 

dddddd'-i^''-H 


l"< 


.-HMCO^iOCDt^OOO 
t---^^00i0MC2OC0 
^OiTtH00CO00O5t^(M 

" 1-^ T-t r-l <>1 


■5 i 


<fflC<loo-*'-<l:^coo5iO 

rtCOTfCDOOCi'— i(N^ 
iOOlOOiOOCO^hcO 
^OiCOOOCMt^rtOO 


l°5 


'TtHO-^GOCOOOC^Hr^C^ 
00^'-H(M<MCOCO-* 
"*00C^OO-*00(MO 

OOi-i^C^(MCSCOCO 


1— iT-iC^COOO-^iCO 


6 


^cqco-^ioot^QOOi 




-HO-lCO-^iOOt^OOO 


Long Measure. 
1 Meter = 39.37 Inches. 


.§ 2"5 


I>TfHrtG0>O(MC2CDC0 
COI>-^-Tf00(MiOOlCO 
ClCOOOt-COCOiO^-* 
COr^^lOOCOt^^HiQ 


i5 


L0C;-+O-*00C000(M 

cocDocor^o-^t^^H 
0'-H(Mco'*ioor^oo 

OC0CX'-*OO(M00t« 

^ CO -* oc' d ^' (m' -^' 


OO'-H'-H^iMtMCOCO 


■5 2.§ 


'^COClcOO-^OOtMCO 
iOOO.-^t^MI>.COGO 

T-l --I '-I T-H C^ (M 


l2 = 
.2 S 
12 


i>-^^ooiooqa3oco 

COt-^'^GCXMLOOCO 
-H(M-Tt<iOcDC/:oOiM 
(M-*«:)(X)0(M^t^O 
O(M00^.-^t^C0C:i0 


O^r- iMCOCOTtH^lO 


S" 


OOiCiOOOOCOWt^t^ 
T-^COiOI^Or-^COi-OI:^ 

(Mioi>dc^iot^dc^ 

rt T-l 7— 1 rt ^ (N 


° " 


00CO'*(MO00«:)Tf<(M 
^C2'*Ci'*0CC000CO 
OO^^CMC^COCOtH 

cocooc^iooo^-^t^ 


OOOt-ht-ht-KMNC^ 


■s i 


OOOOiC^CO^OCft 
OCOOt^'^^OOiC^- 

COt^-— ilOClCOt^.— iiO 

dd'-<'-iT-ic^(Mcoco 


l°£ 


oot^iccoc^ooot^o 

O^-'OlCO-^l-OlOOt^ 
O0^-*IC^OC1CO-*(M 

coddcoddtMOCi 

i-H r-( r- 1 CM CM (M 




^(NCO-^iOOt^CXJC^ 




T-HC^co-^iccct^aco 



188 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



g 3 2 
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o 



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■^b-T-HiOOOiM^OrO 

t>iOCOT-i03l:^'*i(MO 



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(MtOt^OCOlOQOr-lCO 
000'-i'-i'-Hrt(N(M 



OOOOOOO^T-1 
T-iC^CO-^iOCOt^OOCl 



COCqOiiOi-iOO^Ot^ 

Or-H(Mco^io«:3t^oo 



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OOcOiOCOt— iOOOI>LO 



ooooooooo 
doddooddd 



(MiOt^OCOiOOO.— ICO 

T-H ,-H ■-! rH (M (M 



i(MC0Tt<iOCOl>00Oi 



— o 






s 






■rfiQCC^cD'— iiocncot-- 
GocoLocotMOGor^io 



Oqi-H(M(MCOCO-*I»OLO 

T-HCO'^OOOO^.-ilM^ 
OOOOOO'-H'-H'-H 

i-HCsico^'toccn>ooa5 



cocoai<Moa2CNiooo 
'^oooar^r-iioO'^00 



oo^'-H(^^(^^(^qccco 
ooooooooo 

OOCCi-*<MOOOCO-^{M 

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COOQOiLOC^OOLOT-^CXl 

r -< ,-ie^co ro ^toio 

lOO^O-^O-^OOCO 
C0t^OC0t^O-*<t^rt 
OO'-'^'-HOJiMC^CO 

>-HC<)ro'*>ocoi>oo03 
^ T-H rt c^ (M cq 



^>l0(^l0^^»0(^^oil>- 

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C0«?O5C^«3O2(MlO00 

.-H r-* T-H (N C^ (M 



T— iiMiro^iOOt-^ooo 



E == 2 






cocDOicqi-ooo^^t^ 

(M-5tiCOOi^COCOOOO 
OOOO^^i-HrtCq 
T-^IMCO'^iOOt^OOO 



(N-^OGOOC^^Ot^ 
t-'^irtOOOCCOt--^ 
O'-i(M<MC0'*L0»-0C0 
OOOt^COiO'tiCOC^i— I 

o>— i(Meo^iooi>:o 



CDiMOO'^OOlMOO'^ 
Tt<CiCOGO(rOt^(MO'-i 
OO^t-i<M(MCCMtH 
(M^O00OC^-*iCDCZ) 



O(M00Tt<OO(M00MH 
COt^O-^iQO^iOODtM 
iOOCO.-iCDC^I>(MOO 

^ascoooiMt^T-iOO 



I (M (Ncoeo^ 



TtHOOC-lcDO-HCOO-lCD 

(MiOOOOCOOClT-^^ 

LOOiO"— iCD'-<CO<Ml>. 
COt^O'*H>.'^-+COT-H 

T-H 1— I rH <M (N C^< 00 



lOOiOOiOO^Ol-^ 

rocDOcoi>0-*t^>— I 
OOCDtOirO'— lOC/OcOiQ 

r-l T-l T-l r-H (M (N 



IC^CO-*IOCOJ>000 



HELIOS 



189 



H 

n 
o 



> 

o 
U 



b/3 

1 

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3 
O 
U 

< 
J 
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u 
u 

S 


Pounds per 

Sq. Foot to 

Kilo, per 

Sq. Meter. 


(M -rf !>. O (N >* t^ C-- C^J 


Pounds per 
Sq. Inch 

to Kilo. 

per Sq. 
Centimeter. 


iro CD o 01 >o cc c^i 'O oo 

OOO — -^ — (M!MCM 

I- -f -^ cc lO <M c; CD CO 
Or-HiMOtco-r-rioco 

ddddoddod 


r-< T-H (M O^ CO CO "* 


Kilo, per Sq. 

Meter to 

Pounds per 

Sq. Foot. 




Kilo, per Sq. 

Centimeter 

to Pounds 

per Sq. 

Inch. 


(MiOt^Oi^-rtHCDCCO 

CO CO o oi CD o iM "O c::! 

iM^COO^COCOOOO 

Ol-fCOCCr-HCOlOl^O 

-^CX)(MCO.-<»OOiC000 
T-^C^^iOt-QOOST-KN 


3 *- 1- 

(£8 a 


(y;co-*(MOCftr^icco 

OOt^CCLQ'^CSI-HOC-.' 

■-ici^iot^Qdd^co 


Pounds per 
Cubie Foot 

to Kilo. 

per Cubic 

Meter. 


(M>Ot^OC^-+CDC5^ 

CiOCt-COCDiC^COCO 
-^COlOt^O-HCOlOt- 


CD(M00-tOO(MC<D-* 
T-^CO'^CDCXCS^tN-*! 


1 I 
5 o o. 

2 1 


CMcoLor^c^'— 'coiot^ 

OCOOCOCOOI>COO 
dT-lc^(NCO'*'*iOCD 


J3 c o 
o o S 


'*OOCOt^^uOO-*00 

CO(MCC-rf"^t^COG5CD 
O^i-HiMCOCO-^-^LO 


6 

2 


T-iC<lCO^i-OOt-000 


Z 


^(MCOTfHiOC01>COC5 


Cubic— Horse Power— Ton Measures 




^occoocit^i-too 

CO (M C: >-G Cvl GO lO T-1 CX) 

I>LO<MO(X'iOCOr^OO 


Metric Tons 

per Sq. Meter 

to 

Gross Tons 

per Sq. Foot. 


r-fCO'^icoir^OiO^co 

C3C0i^CC"-O-*-*C0(M 

O"— i!Mco-Tt<iocor^oo 


Ot^IMIT^CO-^iOcOO 




OOCO'*(MOGOO^(M 

ccccc;{MLCoo— ■'*i:^ 
■-^c^coioot^c-. d— i 


Gross Tons 

per Sq. Foot 

to Metric 

Tons per 

Sq. Meter. 


C0t^"-fi00(MiOO2CO 
OGOGOI>COCDiO'*iTtl 

0'-Hc^co'*iocoi>-oo 

"(MCO-*iOCOI>00O3 


,. 3 <U 

.-o| 

3 O S 


COcoOCOOOKMiCOO 

QOcc^coT-Hcr. ooco^ 
ddddddddd 


C O T3 
iZ rJ^ S 

5|| 


C:01001>-COOiO'*CO 
CMlQQO^'^t^OCOCO 
COCOOiCOCOOiCOCOO 
(N-^CDCB^COCOOOO 


t^'^rJQOCOCOOJ^O 
T-HC^CSCO-^iOiOCO 


is! 


COcDO<MLOOO(MiOOO 

lodiO-HCO^t-CMt^ 

COt^O-*!^.— '*G0^ 
T-1 .-H rt (M (M (M CO 


III 


COIOCOOCOICOO-— ICO 
OOCO^CO^Olt^CO'^ 
COt^T-MiOCXMCOO^ 
— (M-*IOCOOOC-J.-^(M 

dddddoo'-i'-i 


3 o c 


-*OCOOC(Mt^^iOO 
COt^i-iiOOJCOt^^iO 


O ° 


-^OOClcOCiCOt^T—io 
^(MTfLOCOOOOTi—iCvl 
OOOOOOO— 1-H 


T-HC^tcOTtHLOCOt^OOOT 


5 5 


T-^CNcO-^LOCOt^OOO 
COC-IOO'^OCDC^OC-*! 
O^^(MC0CC'*-rt<L0 

ddddddddd 


^ uco 

2S o 


cOCOOliOCOOC^Ot:^ 

OOt^iOTtHCO — OOit^ 

dT-HCMcoTtHiodi^^oo 


z 


^(MCO^iOCDt^OOO 


z 


■-HC^cO-^iOCOt^OOCS 




TWO 500 H. P. HEINE BOILERS, ST. CHARLES HOTEL, 
NEW ORLEANS, BURNING FUEL OIL. 



HELIOS 



191 



Table No. 67. 

Wrought Iron, Steel, Copper and Brass Plates. 
Birmingham Gauge. 



No. of 
Gauge. 



Thickness, Inches. 



Weight Per Square Foot, Lbs. 



Steel. 



Copper. 



0000 

000 

00 



1 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 



0.454 or Vwfull.. 

0.425 

0.38 or ^g full... 
0.34 or 1.^ full.. 

0.3 

0.284 

0.259 or M full... 

0.238 

0.22 

0.203 or Vs full.. 
0.18 or s/i6 light. 
0.165 or i/g light. 
0.148 or V? full... 

0.134 

0.12 or 1/^ light. 

0.109 

0.095 or Vio light 

0.083 

0.072 

0.065 

0.058 

0.049 or V20 light 

0.042 

0.035 

0.032 

0.028 

0.025 or V40 

0.022 

0.02 orV50 

0.018 

0.016 

0.014 

0.013 

0.012 

0.001 or Vion 

0.009 

0.008 

0.007 

0.005 or 1/2 

0.004 or V250 

1.00 inch thick... 



18.2167 

17.0531 

15.2475 

13.6425 

12.0375 

11.3955 

10.9324 

9.5497 

8.8275 

8.1454 

7.2225 

6.6206 

5.9385 

5.3767 

4.8150 

4.3736 

3.8119 

3 . 3304 

2.8890 

2.6081 

2 . 3272 



.9661 

.6852 

.4044 

.2840 

.1235 

.0031 

0.8827 

0.8025 

0.7222 

0.6420 

0.5617 

0.5216 

0.4815 

0.4012 

0.3611 

0.3210 

0.2809 

0.2006 

0.1605 



41.5696 



18.4596 

17.2805 

15.4508 

13.8244 

12.1980 

11.5474 

10.5309 

9.6771 

8.9452 

8.2540 

7.3188 

6.7089 

6.0177 

5.4484 

4.8792 

4.4319 

3.8627 

3.3748 

2.9275 

2.6429 

2.3583 

1.9923 



.7077 

.4231 

.3011 

,1385 

.0165 

0.8945 

0.8132 

0.7319 

0.6506 

0.5692 

0.5286 

0.4879 

0.4066 

0.3659 

0.3253 

0.2846 

0.2033 

0.1626 



42.1236 



20.5662 
19.2525 
17.2140 
15.4020 
13.5900 
12.8652 
11.7327 
10.7814 
9.9660 
9.1959 
8.1540 
7.4745 
6.7044 
6.0702 
5.4360 
4.9377 
4.3035 
3.7599 
3.2616 
2.9445 
2.6274 
2.2197 
1.9026 
1.5855 
1.4496 
1.2684 
1 . 1325 
0.9966 
0.9060 
0.8154 
0.7248 
0.6342 
0.5889 
0.5436 
0.4530 
0.4077 
0.3624 
0.3171 
0.2265 
0.1812 



19.4312 
18.1900 
16.2640 
14.5520 
12.8400 
12.1552 
11.0852 
10.1864 
9.4160 



7.7040 
7.0620 
6.3344 

5.7352 
5.1360 
4.6652 
4.0660 
3.5524 
3.0816 
2.7820 
2.4824 
2.0972 



.7976 

.4080 

.3696 

,1984 

.0700 

0.9416 

0.8560 

0.7704 

0.6848 

0.5992 

0.5564 

0.5136 

0.4280 

0.3852 

0.3424 

0.2996 

0.2140 

0.1712 



46.9308 



44.3408 



Boiler Room Tactics" as the name implies^ is a guide to the proper 
manipulation of boilers. It is a little booklet issued by the Heine Safety 
Boiler Co. with special reference to the Heine Boiler^ but there is much that 
is applicable to any boiler. 




'> ' t^: «Mii~ 'tmn md 

v_ f ^^-__ f- trail IBBCT 




Pi 
W 

o 



O 
U 

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H 
U 
H 

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1-1 

B 

M 

P 

O 

u 

Q 
< 

H 
O 



HELIOS 



193 



Table No. 68 

Weight of Square and Round Iron. 
Per Foot of Length. 



Side or 


Weight, 


Weight, 


Side or 


Weight, 


Weight, 


Side or 


Weight, 


Weight, 


DiAM. 


Square. 


Round. 


Dl.\M. 


Square. 


Round. 


DlAM. 


Square. 


Round. 


A 


.013 


.01 


2 


13.52 


10.616 


5 


84.48 


66.35 


Vh 


.053 


.041 


y?. 


15.263 


11.988 


y 


93.168 


73.172 


1% 


.118 


.093 


Va. 


17.112 


13.44 


y 


102.24 


80.304 


14 


.211 


.165 


% 


19.066 


14.975 


y 


111.756 


87.776 


V^ 


.475 


.373 


y?. 


21.12 


16.588 








Vo. 


.845 


.663 


H 


23.292 


18.293 


6 


121.664 


95.5ri2 


Vs 


1.32 


1.043 


H 


25.56 


20.076 


M 


132.04 


103.704 


H 


1.901 


1.493 


% 


27.939 


21.944 


^ 


142.816 


112.16 


Vs 


2.588 


2.032 


3 


30.416 


23.888 


y 


154.012 


120.96 


1 


3.38 


2.654 


y 


35.704 


28.04 


7 


165.632 


130.048 


Vf^ 


4.278 


3.359 


y 


41.408 


32.515 


y 


177.672 


139.544 


M 


5.28 


4.147 


-y 


47.534 


37.332 


y^ 


190.136 


149.328 


Vs 


6.39 


5.019 




54.084 


42.464 


y 


203.024 


159.456 


¥2 


7.604 


5.972 


4 












% 


8.926 


7.01 


y 


61.055 


47.952 


8 


216.336 


169.856 


M 


10.352 


8.128 


y 


68.448 


53.76 








y% 


11.883 


9.333 


y 


76.264 


59.9 


9 


273.792 


215.04 




■1 'm. 

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. ■' '» tl SJ ft , 

lui'siiirs'iS 



"il«li.fl.«m,»!uii 



fii 11 H «» ?' »! " " ?' rl 





HECKER, JONES, JEWELL MILLING CO., NEW YORK, N. Y. 
CONTAINS 2000 H. P. OF HEINE BOILERS. 




HOTEL ST. REGIS, NEW YORK, N. Y., 
CONTAINS 1450 H. P. OF HEINE BOILERS. 



HELIOS 



195 






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o 


-* 


l^ 


CO 


l^ 




o 


CO 


CO 


l^ 


CO 


CM 


lO 




o^i 


1-H 


,_l 


,_! 


(N 


<N 


(M 


CO 


CO 


'^ 


^ 


lO 


lO 


CO 


r^ 


05 


C-1 




^ u 
































T— 1 


^ 


h 


































« 


2 M 


































i 

25 


t: 3 


"* 


CO 


OA 


T-H 


o 


03 


lO 


r^ 


C3 


CO 


CM 


r/1 


(75 


GO 


CM 


C5 


w o 


o 


CO 


CO 


ai 


(N 


■* 


o 


CO 


CO 


-* 


(XJ 




o 


00 


lO 




u « 


T-H 


1 — 1 


1 — 1 


1—1 


(M 


(M 


CO 


CO 


CO 


^ 


Ttl 


la 


CO 


CO 


CO 


1-H 




c ^ 




































°'& 


































•a " 


o 


to 


o 


CO 




CO 


lO 


'^ 


CO 


CO 


GO 


o 


r^ 


r^ 


00 


CO 




5 c 


C2 


>— ' 


-*< 


CO 


Ci 


"—I 


i^ 


o 


CO 


C5 


CM 


CO 


TfH 




lO 


"— ' 




o 


,_, 


,_, 


,_l 


,_, 


(N 


(M 


CO 


CO 


CO 


'^ 


Tt< 


lO 


CO 


r^ 


o 








































"H 




































^ 




(N 


!^ 


CO 


00 


^ 


en 


r^ 


00 


00 


00 


CO 


en 


t^ 


00 




^ 


aj 




tg 




r^ 


'tl 


o 


r^ 


CO 


Ci 


CO 


CM 


uo 


t-O 


1-H 


1^ 


o 


CO 


00 


Q , 






C-l 


(M 


CO 


TtH 


TtH 


lO 


iij 


CO 


1^ 


l^ 


00 


o 


Ci 




CM 


tH 


u ^ 


c 


17 






























T— 1 










































■Sh 
















































































































"S o 


_: 


^ 


(N 


t^ 


(M 


00 


CO 


o 


•rt< 


o 


lO 


1— i 


CO 


CM 


1^ 


no 


C5 


1-H 


z^ 


c 


9 


CO 


(N 


a-. 


lO 


(>J 


</) 


lO 


04 


(/) 


lO 


1— H 


(/) 


'^ 


t^ 


(^ 


t^ 


S 


b 


(M 


CO 


CO 


tH 


lO 


lO 


CO 


I> 


l> 


UU 


Oi 


C2 


o 


1—1 


CO 


lO 


< 






























'-' 


1-H 


1-H 


1-H 






^ 


»o 


(M 


00 


^_l 


CO 


CO 


o 


•o 


o 


CO 


r^ 


CO 


o 


CO 


Oi 


o 




rt 


j2 


i-H 


00 


M< 


1 — 1 


1^ 


CO 


en 


CO 


1^ 




^ 


1^ 


CO 


CO 


1^ 


LO 


m 


£ 


c 


»o 


00 


CO 


05 


«J 


CO 


o 


o 


o 


1— ' 


CO 


CO 


o 


o 


CO 


CM 


«J 


c 


" 


o 


o 


,—1 


,_! 


(N 


CO 


-* 


>o 


CO 


t-' 


00 


Ci 


o 


'^t^ 


r^ 


LO 


< 


■^ 


^ 


























^""^ 


1-H 


^~~' 


CM 


> 






lO 


r^ 


t^ 


LO 


^ 


CO 


o 


o 


o 


CO 




lO 


CO 


^ 


lO 


■* 


c 


cj 


^ 


GO 


C^J 


CO 


o 


r^ 


o 


■^ 


CO 


o; 


(.■M 


'^ 


CO 


o 


CO 


t^ 


rt 


d 


u 


1> 


(M 


t^ 


■^ 




05 


Oi 


C2 


o 


CM 


CO 


o 


1^5 


c^ 


CO 


C<l 


h 




a- 


o 


^ 


'-' 


(M 


CO 


CO 


^ 


lO 


t^ 


00 


02 


- 


C-1 


lO 


C3 
1-H 


00 

CM 


i 




lO 


lO 


lO 


>o 


lO 


>o 






Oi 


o 


o 


o 


-^ 


^ 


on 


»o 


c 


^ 




CI 


Ol 


Gl 






^ 


^ 


r-) 


CM 


CM 


CM 


CO 


CO 


^ 


CO 


u 




o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


"—1 


1—1 




1—1 














_c; 




































h 








































































tso 




































T3 


^^ 


Z 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


1—1 


c^ 


CM 


1—1 


^J 


^! 


o 


o 

1-H 


03 


00 


m 


^oa 






































_; 




o 


^ 


o 


o 


o 


^ 


oa 


oq 


CM 


o 


^ 


o 


CM 


CM 


^ 


o 














CO 






no 


CO 


CO 








CO 


CO 


!>. 








00 


o 


CO 


»o 


00 


o 


(M 


in 


t- 


o 


CM 


lO 


t^ 


CM 


t^ 


CO 


f- 


" 




o 


'-' 


»-( 


"-^ 


'-' 


iM 


(M 


(M 


CM 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


"^l 


"* 


»o 






































< 


^ 






































'c3 






































c 


^ 




:^ 


^ 


;^ 




:^ 


\N 


::^ 




^ 


:^^ 


«1\ 




^ 








X 


c 


T-l 


1—1 


T-H 


r-< 


c^ 


(M 


CM 


CN 


CO 


CO 


CO 


CO 


'Ch 


^ 


lO 


CO 




^ 




o 




1— 1 




H 




}—^ 




c/1 




O 




(^ 


r/ 


W 


C!^ 


N 


H 


H 


1^ 


C/3 


C) 


< M 


K 


C/3 


U 


H 


Pi 


H 


^ 


< 


Ph 


Ci^ 


< 


o 


2 


^ 


<: 




M 


< 


P c; 


n 




hJ 


:4 




w 


c/: 


W 


C^ Pi 


w o 


^ 




HH 


i^Tl 


U 


H 


m 




w 


^ 


:^ 


Q 


w 


W 


E 


P-f 






P-, 


P 


K 




o 


^ 


o 


o 


H 


s 


E 


rrT 


(T 


1— ♦ 




Lj> 


W 


o 


W 


H-1 


K 


H 


H 


c/i 


Pn 




O 




P^ 




P 




o 




p^ 





HELIOS 



197 






a 

03 

o 



bo 

el 
o 






Q 



<u 



t3 

a 

09 

o 



CO 



'Td 



Eh 



•2 ». (1< 






-° S = £ 









o "^ 
2 BJ 



b-OOCC'^^TtH.— i^rt,-iCOO0O0O0000000000000COCO00 



CO CO CO CO <M >— I 1:^ lO CO O CD i-O -Tt< CO C: l^ t^ O (M O O CO 
00'-i(M'*t^(Mt^OOaioa)^CO^O^CO'#Ol^^ 



OC0t^0it^(M'*C0^O'*'-iT-iO»0l:^OOOOOO 
OC^(M-*iiOOOCiOC<JOOO(M-*COt^COOOOOOO 
Mrti— l,-lT-l,-HT-l(M(MCS|C0C0C0C0C0'*iOtOiOiOiO»O 



iO'+i^(MCO'-iCC|'*COiO(MOOOOOCOOiOiOiO 
OOSOl'^COiOt^ClCO'— IC5LO'— lOOT-HiOlMtMC^iOliOiO 

(^^(^^^»o^:^C5(^^T]^oicooococpO(^^GOt^occ>o^>l:^t^ 
rHT-(,-iccii>icoco'cHTtHio«:)t~-coc50^ 



lO O lO O >0 lO »0 O O O O CO lO lO »o to 

Tt^LOcDOOOCOCDOJCOCOiOOiOOiOCDCDOCOt^t^t^ 



^t^ .. „. „. 

<'-HC<>C<)COCO'*i^iOCDl>C0050' 



t^ 00 CX3 Tf< Tf 1 



10000000000000000000000000000000000 



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O'-H'— icoiooo^ocot^cooot^aioooi>.050i>-coi>-oooooo 



oooor-iaico^oiO'*'*t^coi>-oo20^co(M-*!ooo'Xnooou:i 

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OOO'-ir-H.-Hr-H,-!,— iCq(M(M(M(MC^(MCO(MC0COCqcOCOCOC0C0 



'*iTt<co'*ooOT-n:^ooi>oocoooioiocococqt^':t<Q0020^o 

t^COCKMC^I't'OO'— iCC>CCC0Tti(MO^C0(Mr^00C0OC0^OC2O 
(MCO^cDOOOCOCDO-^OiOOiOOOOOOCirtr-iOOOO 

i-l,-l,-IC<lc^C0C0^'*L0cdl>00I>00OOO^(M(M 



^lOCOOOOCOcDOCOGO'OOiOO'OCOOcDcDcCit^t^t^t^t^t^ 
r-iT-(T-HT-(C<icNC0^':tHiOiOC0t^0000C3OOO^C<i(M 



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< 
O 

o 

w 
o 

X 



Q 
W 

Ph 

a 

w 

d 
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pq 
Pi 

o 

Q 

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en 

P^ 
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o 

pq 

W 
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HELIOS 



199 



Table No. 71. 
Double Extra Strong Steam, Gas and Water Pipe. 

Table of Standard Dimensions. 





Diameter. 




Internal 

Transverse 

Area. 


Nominal 
Weight 
Per Foot. 




Size. 


Nominal 
External. 


Approx. 
Internal. 


Nominal 
Thickness. 


Number 

of Threads 

Per Inch 

of Screw. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Sq. Inches. 


Pounds. 


1^ 


.84 


.244 


.298 


.047 


1.70 


14 


M 


1.05 


.422 


.314 


.140 


2.44 


14 


1 


1.315 


.587 


.364 


.271 


3.65 


IIH 


iH 


1.66 


.885 


.388 


.615 


5.20 


11.^ 


W% 


1.90 


1.088 


.406 


.930 


6.40 


113^ 


2 


2.375 


1.491 


.442 


1.744 


9.02 


UK 


'm 


2.875 


1.755 


.560 


2.419 


13.68 


8 


3 


3.50 


2.284 


.608 


4.097 


18.56 


8 


m. 


4.00 


2.716 


.642 


5.794 


22.75 


8 


4 


4.50 


3.136 


.682 


7.724 


27.48 


8 


4M 


5.00 


3.564 


.718 


9.976 


32.53 


8 


5 


5.563 


4.063 


.75 


12.965 


38.12 


8 


6 


6.625 


4.875 


.875 


18.665 


53.11 


8 


7 


7.625 


5.875 


.875 


27.109 


62.38 


8 


8 


8.625 


6.875 


.875 


37.122 


71.62 


8 




ENGINE ROOM OF POWER HOUSE, HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO. SHOP. 

ST. LOUIS. MO. 



200 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



Table No. 72 
Diameters, Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 



Advancing 


by Sths. 




i 


3 


M 


i 




M 


i 


6 
3 


n 


i ^ 


t5 


e" 


E 

3 


M 


i 


E 

3 


« 


5 


u 


< 


■q 


ij 


< 


Q 


U 


< 


Q o 


< 


Q 


u 


< 


Q 


U 


< 





0.000 


o.oooo 


8 


25.13 


50.265 


16 


50.27 


201.06 


24 


75.40 


452.39 


52 


100.531 


804.25 


40 


125.6641256.64 


K 


0.393 


0.0123 


Yi 


25.53 


51.849 


Yi 


50.66 


204.22 


Vi 


75.79 


457.11 


Vi 


100.924 


810.54 


y 


126.056,1264.51 


M 


0.785 


0.0491 


Yi 


25.92 


53.456 


Yi 


51.05 


207.39 


Yi 


76.18 


461.86 


Yi 


101.316 


816.86 M:126.449|1272.40 


^ 


1.178 


0.1104 


H 


26.31 


55.088 


% 


51.44 


210.60 


y 


76.58 


466.64 


Yi 


101.709 


823.21 


^8;126.842:i280.31 


Vi 


1.571 


0.1963 


Yi 


26.70 


56.745 


Yi 


51.84 


213.82 


Vi 


76.97 


471.44 


Vi 


102.102 


829.58 


M|127.235,1288.25 


Ys 


1.963 


0.3068 


Yi 


27.10 


58.426 


Yi 


52.23 


217.08 


y 


77.36 


476.26 


Yi 


102.494 


835.97 


5^127.627 


1296.22 


H 


2.356 


0.4418 


Yi 


27.49 


60.132 


Yi 


52.62 


220.35 


y 


77.75 


481.11 


Yi 


102.887 


842.93 


Yi 


128.020 


1304.21 


Vs 


2.749 


0.6013 


Vi 


27.88 


61.862 


Yi 


53.01 


223.65 


Yi 


78.15 


485.98 


Yi 


103.280 


848.83 


Yi 


128.413 


1312.22 


1 


3.142 


0.7854 


9 


28.27 


63.617 


17 


53.41 


226.98 


25 


78.54 


490.87 


33 


103.673 


855.30 


41 


128.805 


1320.26 


Vs 


3.534 


0.9940 


Yi 


28.67 


65.397 


Vi 


53.80 


230.33 


Vi 


78.93 


495.79 


Vi 


104.065 


861.79 


Yi 


129.198 


1328.32 


Vi 


3.927 


1.2272 


Yi 


29.06 


67.201 


Vi 


54.19 


233.71 


Vi 


79.33 


500.74 


Yi 


104.458 


868.31 


Vi 


129.591 


1336.41 


% 


4.320 


1.4849 


% 


29.45 


69.029 


y 


54.59 


237.10 


y 


79.72 


505.71 


Yi 


104.851 


874.85 


Yi 


129.983 


1344.52 


y% 


4.712 


1.7671 


M 


29.85 


70.882 


yi 


54.98 


240.53 


yi 


80.11 


510.71 


Vi 


105.243 


881.41 


Vi 


130.376 


1352.66 


Ys 


5.105 


2.0739 


ys 


30.24 


72.760 


Yi 


55.37 


243.98 


. y 


80.50 


515.72 


Yi 


105.636 


888.00 


Yi 


130.769 


1360.82 


% 


5.498 


2.4053 


u 


30.63 


74.662 


H 


55.76 


247.45 


y 


80.90 


520.77 


Yi 


106.029 


894.62 


Yi 


131.161 


1369.00 


Vs 


S.890 


2.7612 


>8 


31.02 


76.589 


Yi 


56.16 


250.95 


Yi 


81.29 


525.84 


Yi 


106.421 


901.26 


Yi 


131.554 


1377.21 


2 


6.283 


3.1416 


10 


31.42 


78.540 


18 


56.55 


254,47 


26 


81.68 


530.93 


34 


106.814 


907.92 


42 


131.947 


1385.45 


Vs 


6.676 


3.5466 


Yi 


31.81 


80.516 


Vi 


56.94 


258.02 


Vi 


82.07 


536.05 


Vi 


107.207 


914.61 


Yi 


132.340 


1393.70 


K 


7.069 


3.9761 


Yi 


32.20 


82.516 


Vi 


57.33 


261.59 


Vi 


82.47 


541.19 


M 


107.600 


921.32 


Yi 


132.732 1401.99 


Vs 


7.461 


4.4301 


% 


32.59 


84.541 


y 


57.73 


265.18 


?8 


82.86 


546.35 


y 


107.992 


928.06 


yi 


133.125 1410.30 


Vi 


7.854 


4.9087 


Yi 


32.99 


86.590 


1 o 


58.12 


268.80 


V2 


83.25 


551.55 


Yi 


108.385 


934.82 


Vi 


133.5181418.65 


Y% 


8.247 


5.4119 


Yi 


33.38 


88.664 


Yi 


58.51 


272.45 


y 


83.64 


556.76 


Yi 


108.778 


941.61 


Yi 


133.9101426.96 


H 


8.639 


6.9396 


Yi 


33.77 


90.763 


y 


58.90 


276.12 


Yi 


84.04 


562.00 


Yi 


109.170 


948.42 


Yi 


134.303 


1435.37 


Vi 


9.032 


6.4918 


Yi 


34.16 


92.886 


y 


59.30 


279.81 


Yi 


84.43 


567.27 


Yi 


109.563 


955.25 


Yi 


134.696 


1448.77 


3 


9.425 


7.0686 


11 


34.56 


95.033 


19 


59.69 


283.53 


27 


84.82 


572.56 


35 


109.956 


962.11 


43 


135.088 


1452.20 


Vi 


9.817 


7.6699 


Yi 


34.95 


97.205 


1.-,' 


60.08 


287.27 


Vi 


85.22 


577.87 


Vi 


110.348 


969.00 


Vi 


135.481 


1460.66 


M 


10.210 


8.2958 


Yi 


35.34 


99.402 


Vi 


60.48 


291.04 


Vi 


85.61 


583.21 


Vi 


110.741 


975.91 


yi 


135.874 


1469.14 


y% 


10.603 


8.9462 


% 


35.74 


101.62 


Yi 


60.87 


294.83 


Yi 


86.00 


588.57 


Yi 


111.134 


982.84 


Yi 


136.267 


1477.64 


Vi 


10.996 


9.6211 


Yi 


36.13 


103.87 


V2 


61.26 


298.65 


H 


86.39 


593.96 


Vi 


111.527 


989.80 


Yi 


136.659 


1486.17 


Yi 


11.388 


10.321 


Yi 


36.52 


106.14 


y 


61.65 


302.49 


Yi 


86.79 


599.37 


Yi 


111.919 


996.78 


Yi 


137.052 


1494.73 


Yi 


11.781 


11.045 


yi 


36.91 


108.43 


H 


62.05 


306.35 


y 


87.18 


604.81 


Yi 


112.312 


1003.79 


Yi 


137.445 


1503.30 


Vi 


12.174 


11.793 


Yi 


37.31 


110.75 


Yi 


62.44 


310.24 


Yi 


87.57 


610.27 


Yi 


112.705 


1010.82 


Yi 


137.837 


1511.91 


4 


12.57 


12.566 


12 


37.70 


113.10 


20 


62.83 


314.16 


28 


87.96 


615.75 


36 


113.097 


1017.87 


44 


138.230 


1520.53 


Vi 


12.96 


13.364 


Yi 


38.09 


115.47 


Vi 


63.22 


318.10 


Yi 


88.36 


621.26 


Vi 


113.490 


1024.96 


Vi 


138.523 


1529.19 


Yi 


13.35 


14.186 


Yi 


38.48 


117.86 


Vi 


63.62 


322.06 


Vi 


88.75 


626.80 


Vi 


113.883 


1032.06 


Vi 


139.015 


1537.86 


Yi 


13.74 


15.033 


H 


38.88 


120.28 


y 


64.01 


326.05 


Yi 


89.14 


632.36 


y 


114.275 


1039.19 


y 


139.408 


1546.56 


Yi 


14.14 


15.904 


yi 


39.27 


122.72 


yi 


64.40 


330.06 


Vi 


89.54 


637.94 


Vi 


114.668 


1046.34 


Vi 


139.801 


1555.29 


Ys 


14.53 


16.800 


H 


39.66 


125.19 


Yi 


64.80 


334.10 


Yi 


89.93 


643.55 


Yi 


115.061 


1053.52 


Yi 


140.194 


1564.04 


% 


14.92 


17.721 


u 


40.06 


127.68 


Yi 


65.19 


338.16 


Yi 


90.32 


649.18 


Yi 


115.454 


1060.72 


Yi 


140.586 


1572.82 


ii 


15.32 


18.665 


Yi 


40.45 


130.19 


Yi 


65.58 


342.25 


Yi 


90.71 


654.84 


Yi 


115.846 


1067.96 


Yi 


140.979 


1581.61 


5 


15.71 


19.635 


13 


40.84 


132.73 


21 


65.97 


346.36 


29 


91.11 


660.52 


37 


116.239 


1075.21 


45 


141.372 


1590.43 


Yi 


16.10 


20.629 


Yi 


41.23 


135.30 


Vi 


66.37 


350.50 


Vi 


91.50 


666.23 


Vi 


116.633 


1082.49 


Yi 


141.764 


1599.28 


Yi 


16.49 


21.648 


Yi 


41.63 


137.89 


Vi 


66.76 


354.66 


Vi 


91.89 


671.96 


34 


117.024 


1089.79 


Vi 


142.157 


1608.16 


Yi 


16.89 


22.691 


y 


42.02 


140.50 


Yi 


67.15 


358.84 


y 


92.28 


677.71 


?S 


117.417 


1097.11 


Yi 


142.550 


1617.05 


Yi 


17.28 


23.758 


H 


42.41 


143.14 


Vi 


67.54 


363.05 


Vi 


92.68 


683.49 


Vi 


117.810 


1104.46 


Vi 


142.942 


1625.97 


Yi 


17.67 


24.850 


Yi 


42.80 


145.80 


Yi 


67.94 


367.28 


Yi 


93.07 


689.30 


Yi 


118.202 


1111.84 


Yi 


143.335 


1634.92 


Yi 


18.06 


25.967 


y 


43.20 


148.49 


Yi 


68.33 


371.54 


Yi 


93.46 


695.13 


y 


118.596 


1119.24 


Yi 


143.728 


1643.89 


Yi 


18.46 


27.109 


Yi 


43.59 


151.20 


Yi 


68.72 


375.83 


Yi 


93.86 


700.98 


Yi 


118.989 


1126.66 


Yi 


144.121 


1652.89 


6 


18.85 


28.274 


14 


43.98 


153.94 


22 


69.12 


380.13 


30 


94.248 


706.86 


38 


119.381 


1134.11 


46 


144.513 


1661.91 


Yi 


19.24 


29.465 


H 


41.37 


156.70 


Vi 


60.51 


384.46 


Vi 


94.640 


712.76 


Vi 


119.773 


1141.59 


K 


144.906 


1670.95 


M 


19.63 


30.680 


Yi 


44.77 


159.48 


Vi 


69.90 


388.82 


Vi 


95.033 


718.69 


yi 


120.166 


1149.08 


Yi 


145.299 


1680.02 


Yi 


20.03 


31.919 


Yi 


45.16 


162.30 


Yi 


70.29 


393.20 


y 


95.426 


724.64 


yi 


120.559 


1156.61 


H 


145.691 


1689.11 


Yi 


20.42 


33.183 


Yi 


45.55 


165.13 


Vi 


70.69 


397.61 


Vi 


95.819 


730.62 


Vi 


120.951 


1164.15 


Vi 


146.084 


1698.23 


% 


20.81 


34.472 


Yi 


45.95 


167.99 


Yi 


71.08 


402.04 


Yi 


96.211 


736.62 


Yi 


121.344 


1171.73 


Yi 


146.477 


1707.37 


Yi 


21.21 


35.785 


Yi 


46.34 


170.87 


Yi 


71.47 


406.49 


Yi 


96.604 


742.64 


yi 


121.737 


1179.32 


y 


146.869 


1716.54 


y. 


21.60 


37.122 


Yi 


46.73 


173.78 


Yi 


71.86 


410.97 


Yi 


96.997 


748 69 


Yi 


122.129 


1186.94 


Vi 


147.262 


1725.73 


7 


21.99 


38.485 


15 


47.12 


176.71 


23 


72.26 


415.48 


31 


97.389 


754.77 


39 


122.522 


1194.59 


47 


147.655 


1734.95 


Yi 


22.38 


39.871 


Yi 


47.52 


179.67 


Vi 


72.65 


420.00 


Yi 


97.782 


760.87 


Vi 


122.915 


1202.26 


Vi 


148.048 


1744.19 


Yi 


22.78 


41.282 


Yi 


47.91 


182.65 


Vi 


73.04 


424.56 


Vi 


98.175 


766.99 • 


Vi 


123.308 


1209.95 


Vi 


148.440 


1753.45 


Y 


23.17 


42.718 


y 


48.30 


185.66 


Yi 


73.43 


429.13 


Yi 


98.£67 


773.14 


y 


123.700 


1217.67 


y 


148.833 


1762.74 


Y 


23.56 


44.179 


Y 


48.69 


188.69 


Yi 


73.83 


433.74 


Vi 


98.960 


779.31 


Vi 


124.093 


1225.42 


Yi 


149.226 


1772.06 


y 


23.95 


45.664 


y 


49.09 


191.75 


y 


74.22 


4.38.36 


Yi 


99.353 


785.51 


y 


124.486 


1233.18 


Yi 


149.618 


1781.40 


y 


24.35 


47.173 


Yi 49.48 194.83 


Yi 


74.61 


443.01 


Yi 


99.746 


791.73 


Yi 


124.87S 


1240.98 


Yi 


150.011 


1790.76 


_i: 


24.74 


48.707 


Yi 49.87 197.93 


Yi 


75.01 


447.69 


Yi 


100.138 


1797.98 


Yi 


125.271 


1248.79 


Yi 


150.404 


1800.15 



HELIOS 



201 



Table No. 72 — Continued. 
Diameters, Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 



Advancing by Sths. 



E 

5 




< 


i 


Circum. 
Area. 


i 


i 

3 

u 


< 


i 

a 




< 


i 


E 

3 
U 


< 


E 
5 


E 
3 

U 


< 


48 


150.796 


1809.50 


56 


175.929 


2463.0 


64 


201.062 


.3217.0 


72 


226.195 


4071.5 


80 


251.327'5026.5 


88 


276.460 6082.1 


Vs 


151.189 


1819.00 


Vi 


176.322 


2474,0 


y 


201.455 


3229.6 


y 


226.587 


4085.7 


y 


251.720 


5042.3 


J^!276.853 6099.4 


M 


151.582 


1828.45 


M 


176.715 


2485.1 


y 


201.847 


3242.2 


y 


226.980 


4099.8 


y 


252.113 


5058.0 


Mi277.246 


6116.7 


Vs 


151.975 


1837.95 


^8 


177.107 


2496.1 


ys 


202.240 


3254.8 


y 


227.373 


4114.0 


y 


252.506 


5073.8 


51,1277.638 61.34.1 


y% 


152.367 


1847.46 


H 


177.500 


2507.2 


y 


202.633 


3267.5 


y 


227.765 


4128.2 


y 


252.898 


5089.6 


H278.031 6151.4 


Vs 


152.760 


1856.99 


yi 


177.893 


2518.3 


ys 


203.025 


3280.1 


y 


228.158 


4142.5 


y 


253.291 


5105.4 


5^'278.424'6168.8 


Vi 


153.153 


1866.55 


% 


178.285 


2529.4 


y 


203.418 


3292.8 


y 


228.551 


4156.8 


y 


253.684 


5121.2 


5i|278.816i6186.2 


Vs 


153.545 


1876.14 


Vs 


178.678 


2540.6 


Vs 


203.811 


3305.6 


y 


228.944 


4171.1 


Vs 


254.07615137.1 


J-g279.209J6203.7 


49 


153.938 


1885.70 


57 


179.071 


2551.8 


65 


204.204 


3318.3 


73 


229.336 


4185.4 


81 


254.469 '5153.0 


89 279.602'6221.1 


Vs 


154.331 


1895.33 


y^ 


179.463 


2563.0 


y 


204.596 


3331.1 


y 


229.729i4199.7 


y 


2.54.862:5168.9 


1^279.994,6238.6 


Vi 


154.723 


1905.04 


M 


179.856 


2574.2 


y 


204.989 


3343.9 


y 


230.122 


4214.1 


y 


255.254 


5184.9 


M 280.38716256.1 


Vs 


155.116 


1914.72 


?8 


180.249 


2585.4 


y 


205.382 


.3356.7 


y 


230.514 


4228.5 


y 


255.647 


5200.8 


5-8,280.780!6273.7 


Vi 


155.509 


1924.43 


>2 


180.642 


2596.7 


y 


205.774 


3369.6 


y 


230.907 


4242.9 


y^ 


256.040 


5216.8 


3-^281.173:6291.2 


Vi 


155.902 


1934.16 


^ 


181.034 


2608,0 


y 


206.167 


3382.4 


y 


231.300 


4257,4 


y 


256.433 


5232.8 


y 


281.56516308.8 


M 


156.294 


1943.91 


M 


181 427 


2619.4 


Va 


206.560 


3395.3 


y 


231.692 


4271,8 


y 


256.825 


5248.9 


y 


281.95816326.4 


Vi 


156.687 


1952,96 


% 


181.820 


2630.7 


Vs 


206.952 


3408.2 


y 


232.085 


4286.3 


Vs 


257.21815264.9 


Vs 


282.3516344.1 


50 


157.080 


1963.5 


58 


182.212 


2642.1 


66 


207.345 


3421.2 


74 


232.478 


4300,8 


82 


257.61l'5281.0 


90 


282.743'6361.7 


y% 


157.472 


1973.3 


y 


182.605 


2653.5 


ys 


207.738 


3434.2 


y 


232.871 


4315.4 


K 


258.003|5297.1 


y 


283.136,6379.4 


M 


157.865 


1983.2 


K 


182.998 


2664.9 


y 


208.131 


3447.2 


y 


233.263 


4329.9 


y 


258..396|5313,3 


y 


283.52916397.1 


y% 


158.258 


1993.1 


58 


183.390 


2676.4 


Vs 


208.523 


3460.2 


y 


233.656 


4344.5 


y 


258.789 


5329.4 


y 


283.92116414.9 


Vi 


158.650 


2003.0 


3-^2 


183.783 


2687.8 


y 


208.916 


3473.2 


y 


234.049 


4359.2 


H 


259.181 


5345.6 


y 


284.314 6432.6 


y% 


159.043 


2012.9 


Vi 


184.176 


2699.3 


Vs 


209.309 


3486.3 


y 


234.441 


4373.8 


y 


259.574 


5361.8 


5^284.70716450.4 


Vi 


159.436 


2022.8 


H 


184.569 


2710.9 


y 


209.701 


3499.4 


y 


234.834 


4388.5 


y 


259.967 


5378.1 


y 


285.100:6468.2 


Vs 


159.829 


2032.8 


K 


184.961 


2722.4 


% 


210.094 


3512.5 


y 


235.227 


4403.1 


y 


260.359 


5394.3 


y 


285.492 6486.0 


51 


160.221 


2042.8 


59 


185.354 


2734.0 


67 


210.487 


3525.7 


75 


235.619 


4417.9 


83 


260.752 


5410.6 


91 


285.885 6503.9 


'i 


160.614 


2052.8 


y 


185.747 


2745.6 


y 


210.879 


3538.8 


y 


236.012 


4432.6 


y 


261.145 


5426.9 


y 


286.278:6521.8 


161.007 


2062.9 


y 


186.139 


2757.2 


y 


211.272 


3552.0 


y 


236.405 


4447.4 


y 


261.538 


5443.3 


y 


286.67016539.7 


% 


161.399 


2073.0 


y% 


186.532 


2768.8 


y 


211.665 


3565.2 


y 


236.798 


4466.2 


y 


261.930,5459.6 


y 


287.063,6557.6 


H 


161.792 


2083.1 


yi 


186.925 


2780.5 


y 


212.058 


3578.5 


y 


237.190 


4477.0 


y 


262.323 


5476.0 


y 


287.456'6575.5 


^ 


162.185 


2093.2 


y% 


187.317 


2792.2 


y 


212.450 


3591.7 


y 


237.583 


4491.8 


y 


262.716 


5492.4 


y 


287.848:6593.5 


M 


162.577 


2103.3 


M 


187.710 


2803.9 


y 


212.843 


3605.0 


y 


237.976 


4506.7 


y 


263.108 


5508.8 


y 


288.24ll6611.5 


Vi 


162.970 


2113.5 


% 


188.103 


2815.7 


y 


213.236 


3618.3 


y 


238.368 


4521.5 


Vs 


263.501 


5525.3 


Vs 


288.634,6629.6 


52 


163.363 


2123.7 


60 


188.496 


2827.4 


68 


213.628 


3631.7 


76 


238.761 


4536.5 


84 


263.894 


5541.8 


92 


289.02716647.6 


Vi 


163.756 


2133.9 


y 


188.888 


2839.2 


y 


214.021 


3645.0 


y 


239.154 


4551.4 


y 


264.286; 5558.3 


y 


289.419J6665.7 


H 


164.148 


2144.2 


y 


189.281 


2851.0 


y 


214.414 


3658.4 


y 


239.546 


4566.4 


y 


264.67915574.8 


y 


289.812 6683.8 


y% 


164.541 


2154.5 


?-8 


189.674 


2862.9 


y 


214.806 


3671.8 


y 


239.939 


4581.3 


y 


265.072 


5591.4 


Vs 


290.205 6701.9 


Vi 


164.934 


2164.8 


}-2 


190.066 


2874.8 


yi 


215.199 


3685.3 


y 


240.332 


4596.3 


y 


265.465 


5607.9 


y 


290.597 6720.1 


y^ 


165.326 


2175.1 


^ 


190.459 


2886.6 


y 


215.592 


3698.7 


y 


240.725 4611.4 


y 


265.857 


5624.5 


^290.990 6738.2 


y^ 


165.719 


2185.4 


Va. 


190.852 


2898.6 


y 


215.984 


3712.2 


y 


241.117 4626.4 


y 


266.250 


5641.2 


5^291.383 6756.4 


% 


166.112 


2195.8 


Vs 


191.244 


2910.5 


Vs 


216.377 


3725.7 


y 


241.510 4641.5 


y 


266.643 5657.8 


K 291.775 6774.7 


53 


166.504 


2206.2 


61 


191.637 


2922.5 


69 


216.770 


3739.3 


77 


241.903 4656.6 


85 


267.035 5674.5 


93 292.168 6792.9 


y^ 


166.897 


2216.6 


y 


192.030 


2934.5 


K 


217.163 


3752.8 


y 


242.29514671.8 


y 


267.428,5691.2 


i^'292.56116811.2 


M 


167.290 


2227.0 


y 


192.423 


2946.5 


y 


217.555 


3766.4 


y 


242.688 4689.9 


y 


267.821 5707.9 


}4:292.954|6829.5 


% 


167.683 


2237.5 


y 


192.815 


2958.5 


Is 


217,948 


3780.0 


y 


243.081 4702.1 


y 


268.213 5724.7 


5^8,293.346,6847.8 


y-i 


168.075 


2248.0 


y 


193.208 


2970.6 


>2 


218.341 


3793.7 


y 


243.47314717.3 


y 


268.606 5741.5 


H'293.739|6868.1 


% 


168.468 


2258.5 


Vi 


193.601 


2982,7 


y 


218.733 


3807.3 


y 


243.866 4732.5 


y 


268.999 5758.3 


^294.132 6884.5 


Vi 


168.861 


2269.1 


y 


193.993 


2994.8 


y 


219.126 


.3821.0 


y 


244.259 4747.8 


y 


269.39215775.1 


5a"294, 52416902.9 


Vs 


169.253 


2279.6 


Vs 


194.386 


3006.9 


y 


219.519 


3834.7 


y 


244.652 4763.1 


y 


269.784,5791.9 


>-8 294.917 6921.3 


54 


169.646 


2290.2 


52 


194.779 


3019.1 


70 


219.911 


3848.5 


78 


245.044 4778,4 


86 


270.177'5808.8 


94 295.310 6939.8 


ys 


170.039 


2300.8 


y 


195.171 


3031.3 


y 


220.304 


3862.2 


y 


245.43714793.7 


y 


270.570,5825.7 


K 295.702 6958.2 


M 


170.431 


2311.5 


y 


195.564 


3043.5 


y 


220.697 


3876.0 


y 


245.830!4809.0 


y 


270.962 5842.6 


i<i!296.095 6976.7 


% 


170.824 


2322.1 


y 


195.957 


3055.7 


y 


221.090 


3889.8 


y 


246.222:4824.4 


H 


271.355158.59.6 


^8 296.488 6995.3 


yi 


171.217 


2332.8 


y 


196.350 


3068.0 


yi 


221.482 


3903.6 


y 


246.61514839.8 


y 


271.74815876.5 


1^296.881 7013.8 


Vs 


171.609 


2343.5 


y% 


196.742 3080.3 


ys 


221,875 


3917.5 


y 


247.008,4855.2 


y 


272.140 5893.5 


^^^297.273 7032.4 


% 


172.002 


2354.3 


y 


197.135 3092.6 


y 


222,268 


3931.4 


y 


247.40014870.7 


y 


272.533 5910.6 


5il297.666 7051.O 


Vs 


172.395 


2365.0 


Vs 


197.528 3104.9 


y 


222.660 


3945.3 


Vs 


247.793,4886.2 


Vs 


272.926 5927.6 


K 298.059,7069.6 


55 


172.788 


2375.8 


63 


197.92o'3117.2 


71 


223.053 '3959.2 


79 


248.186'4901.7 


87 


273.319 5944.7 


95 298.4517088.2 


K 


173.180 


2386.6 


y 


198.313 


3129.6 


y 


223.446,3973.1 


y 


248.579 4917,2 


y 


273.711 5961.8 


K 298.844 7106.9 


M 


173.573 


2397.5 


y 


198.706 


3142.0 


y 


223.838 3987.1 


y 


248,971 4932.7 


y 


274.104 5978.9 


J-i 299.237 7125.6 


% 


173.966 


2408.3 


ys 


199.098 


3154.5 


y 


224.231 4001.1 


5s 


249.364,4948.3 


58 


274.497 5996.0 


58 299.629 7144.3 


yi 


174.358 


2419.2 


y 


199.491 


3166.9 


y 


224.624 4015.2 


y 


249.757i4963.9 


y2 


274.889 6013.2 


14300.022 7163.0 


y% 


174.751 


2430.1 


Vs 


199.884 


3179.4 


y 


225.017 4029.2 


y 


250.149'4979.5 


y 


275.282 6030.4 


5-^300.415 7181.8 


% 


175.144 


2441.1 


y 


200.277 


3191.9 


y 


225.409 4043.3 


y 


250.54214995.2 


y 


275.625 6047.6 


5-1300.807 7200.6 


y% 


175.536 


2452.0 


Vs 


200.669 '3204.4 


y 


225.802 4057.4 


Ki250.935i5010.9 


y 


276.067 6064.9 


3/8 301.200 7219.4 



HELIOS 



203 



Table No. 72 — Continued. 
Diameters, Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 















Advancin 


jby Sths. 


















E 




B 






E 






E 




. E 






E 




i 


3 


s 


E 3 


S 


t: 


3 


2 


1 


3 


s 


E 


3 


2 


E 


3 


s 


a 


u 


< 


Q u 


<: 


u 


u 


< 


Q 


U 


< 


D 


(J 


< 


D 


u 


< 


96 


301.593 


7238.2 


?i 303.949 7351.8 


Jg 305.913 


7447.1 


98 307.876,7.543.0 


M 310.232 


76.58.9 


Vi 


312.196 


7756.1 


H 


301.986 


7257.1 


Vi 304.342 7370.8 


>^ 1306.305 


7466.2 


K, 308.269 


7562.2 


K, 310.625 


7678.3 


3^i312..588 


7775 6 


Va 


302.378 


7276.0 




J^ 306.698 


7485.3 


M' 308.661 


7581.5 






Yf 312.981 


7705.2 


% 


302.771 


7294.9 


97 304.7347389.8 


M '307.091 


7504.5 


y% 309.054 


7600.8 


99 1311.018 


7697.7 


M 313.374 


7814.1 


Vi 


303.164 


7313.8 


5^305.1277408.9 


Vi 307.483 


7523.7 


Vi 309.447 


7620.1 


>g311.4I0 


7717.1 


Vi 313.767 


7834.4 


5i 803.556 


7333.8 


M 305.52017428.0 






^309.840 


7639.5 


}4 311.803 


7736.6 


10 314.159 


7854.0 




BREWSTER & CO., CARRIAGE MFGRS. LONG ISLAND CITY, N. Y. 
CONTAINS 525 H. P. OF HEINE BOILERS. 



204 



HEINE SAFETY BOILER CO 



Table No. 73 
Diameters, Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 

















Advancing 


by lOths. 
















J e 






i 






e 






E 






E 






£ 




Diam 
Circu 


< 


E 
Q 


u 


< 


E 

Q 


u 


< 


i 

Q 


3 


< 


E 

a 


U 


< 


1 
Q 


3 



< 


0.0 0.00000 0.000000 


7.0 21.991 


38.4845 


14.0,43.982,153.938 


21.0| 65.973 


346.361 


28.0 87.965 


615.752 


35.0109.96,962.113 


0.1 0.3141G 0.007854 


1 22.305 


39.5919 


r44.296 156.145 


1 66.288 


349.667 


1 88.279 


620.158 


1 110.27 


967.618 


0.2 0.62S32 0.031416 


2 22.619 


40.7150 


2 44.611 158.368 


2 66.602 


352.989 


2 88.593 


624.580 


2110.58 


973.140 


0.3 0.94248,0.070686 


3:22.934 


41.8539 


3:44.925 160.606 


3;S6.916 


.356.327 


3 88.907 


629.018 


3 110.90 


978.677 


0.4 1.2566 


0.125664 


4,23.248 


43.0084 


4'45.2.39 162.860 


4 67.230 


359.681 


4 89.221 


633.471 


4111.21 


984.230 


0.5 1.5708 


0.196350 


5,23.562 


44.1786 


5 45.553,165.130 


5 67.544 


363.050 


5 89.535 


637.940 


5111.53 


989.798 


0.6 1.8850 


0.282743 


6 


23.876 


45.3646 


6:45.867,167.415 


6 67.858 


366.435 


6 89.850 


642.424 


6111.84 


995.382 


0.7 2.1991 


0.384845 


7 


24.190 


46.5663 


7 46.181 '169.717 


1 


68.173 


369.836 


7:90.164 


646.925 


7112.15 


1000.98 


0.8 2.5133 


0.502655 


8 


24.504 


47.7836 


8 46.496 172.034 


8 


68.487 


373.253 


8'90.478 


651.441 


8112.47 


1006.60 


0.9 2.8274 
i 


0.636173 


9 


24.819 


49.0167 


9 46.810 174.366 


9 


68.801 


376.685 


9,90.792 


655.972 


9112.78 


1012.23 


1.0 3.1416 


0.78540 


8.0 


25.133 


50.2655 


15.0 47.124 176.715 


22.0 


69.115 


380.133 


29.091.106 


660.520 


36.0113.1o!l017.87 


1 3.4558 


0.95033 


1 


25.447 


51.5300 


1 47.438 179.079 


1:69.429 


383.596 


1,91.420 


665.083 


1 113.41 1023.54 


2 3.7699 


1.13097 


2 


25.761 


52.8102 


2 47.752 181.4.58 


2 69.743 


387.076 


2 91.735 


669.662 


2,113.73|1029.21 


3 4.0841 


1.32732 


3 


26.075 


54.1061 


3'48.066:i83.854 


3 


70.058 


390.571 


3 92.049 


674.257 


3|114.04|1034.91 


4 4.3982 


1.53938 


4 


26.389 


55.4177 


4 48..381 186.265 


4 


70.372 


394.081 


4 92.363 


678.867 


4'114.35|l040.62 


5 4.7124 


1.76715 


5 


26.704 


56.7450 


5 48.695,188.692 


5 


70.686 


397.608 


5 92.677 


683.493 


5114.67 1046..34 


6,5.0265 


2.01062 


6 


27.018 


58.0880 


6'49.009 191.134 


6 


71.000 


401.150 


6 92.991 


688.135 


6114.981052.09 


715.3407 


2.26980 


7 


27.332 


59.4468 


7 49.323 193.593 


7 


71.314 


404.708 


793.305 


692.792 


7ill5..30 1057.84 


8 5.6.549 


2.54469 


8 


27.646 


60.8212 


8 49.637 196.067 


8 


71.628 


408.281 


8 93.619 


697.465 


8115.611063.62 


95.9690 


2.83529 


9 


27.960 


62.2114 


9 49.951 198.557 


9 


71.942 


411.871 


993.934 


702.154 


9115.92 


1069.40 


2.06.2832 


3.14159 


9.0 


28.274 


63.6173 


16.0 50.265 201.062 


23.0 


72.257 


415.476 


30.094.248 


706.858 


37.0116.24 


1075.21 


1 6.5973 3.46361 


1 


28.588 


65.0388 


1I50..580 


203.583 


1 


72.,571 


419.096 


i:94.562 


711.579 


1116.55 


1081.03 


2 6.9115 


3.80133 


2 


28.903 


66.4761 


2 50.894 


206.120 


2 


72.885 


422.733 


2 94.876 


615.315 


2:116.87 


1086.86 


3 1 7.2257 


4.15476 


3J29.217 


67.9291 


3:51.208 


208.672 


3 


73.199 


426.385 


395.190 


721.066 


3117.18 


1092.71 


4 7.5398 


4.52389 


4 '29.531 


69.3978 


4 51.522 


211.241 


4 


73.513 


430.053 


4 95.504 


725.834 


4117.50 


1098.58 


5,7.8540 


4.90874 


6:29.845 


70.8822 


5 51.836 


213.825 


5 


73.827 


433.736 


5 95.819 


730.617 


S|117.81 


1104.46 


6 8.1681 


5.30929 


6 30.159 


72.3823 


6:52.150 


216.424 


6 


74.142 


437.435 


6,98.133 


735.415 


6118.12 


1110.36 


7 8.4823 15,72555 


7:30.473 


73.8981 


7 


•52.465 


219.040 


7 


74.456 


441.150 


7,96.447 


740.230 


7'll8.44 


1116.28 


8 8.7965 6.15752 


8 30.788 


75.4296 


8 


52.779 


221.671 


8 


74.770 


444.881 


8 96.761 


745.060 


8118.75 


1122.21 


99.1106 


6.60520 


9 


31.102 


76.9769 


9 


53.093 


224.318 


9 


75.084 


448.627 


9,97.075 


749.906 


9:119.07 


1128.15 


3.o'9.4248 


7.06858 


10.0 


31.416 


78.5398 


17.0 


53.407 


226.980 


24.0 


75.398 


452.389 


31.0 '97.389 


754.768 


38.0119.38 


1134.11 


1 9.7389 


7.54768 


1 


31.730 


80.1185 


1 


53.721 229.658 


1 


75.712 


456.167 


1 97.704 


759.645 


1'119.69 


1140.09 


2 10.053 


8.04248 


2 


32.044 


81.7128 


2 


54.035 


232.352 


2 


76.027 


459.961 


2 98.018 


764.538 


2 


120.01 


1146.08 


3 10.367 


8.55299 


3 


.32.358 


83.3229 


3 


54.350 


235.062 


3 


76.341 


463.770 


398.332 


769.447 


3 


120.32 


1152.09 


4 10.681 


9.07920 


4 


32.673 


84.9487 


4 


54.664 


237.787 


4 


76.655 


467.595 


4 98.646 


774.371 


4 


120.64 


1158.11 


5 10.996 


9.62113 


5 


32.987 


86.5901 


5 


54.978 


240.528 


5 


76.969 


471.435 


5 98.960 


779.311 


5 


120.95 


1164.15 


6,11.310 


10.1788 


6 


33.301 


88.2473 


6 


55.292 


243.285 


6 


77.283 


475.292 


6:99.274 


784.267 


6 


121.27 


1170.21 


7 11.624 


10.7521 


7 


33.615 


89.9202 


7 


55.606 


246.057 


7 


77.597 


479.164 


7,99.588 


789.239 


7 


121.58 


1176.28 


8 11.938 


11.3411 


8 


33.929 


91.6088 


8 


55.920 


248.846 


8 


77.912 


483.051 


8 99.903 


794.226 


8 


121.89 


1182.37 


9 12.252 


11.9459 


9 


34.243 


93,3132 


9 


56.235 


251.649 


9 


78.226 


486.955 


9,100.22 


799.229 


9 


122.11 


1188.47 


4.0 12.566 


12.5664 


11.0 


34.558 


95.0332 


18.0 


56.549 


254.469 


25.0 


78.540 


490.874 


32.0 100.53 


804.248 


39.0 


122.52 


1194.59 


1 12.881 


13.2025 


1 


34.872 


96.7689 


1 


56.863 


257.304 


1 


78.854 


494.809 


1 100.85 


809.282 


1 


122.84 


1200.72 


2 13.195 


13.8544 


2 


35.186 


98.5203 


2 


57.177 


260.155 


2 


79.168 


498.759 


2 101.16 


814.332 


2 


123.15 


1206.87 


3 13.509 


14.5220 


3 


35.500 


100.287 


3 


57.491 


263.022 


3 


79.482 


502.726 


3 101.47 


819.398 


3123.46 


1213.04 


4 13.823 


15.2053 


4 


.35.814 


102.070 


4 


57.805 


265.904 


4 


79.796 


506.707 


4 101.79 


824.480 


4123.78 


1219.22 


5 14.137 


15.9043 


5 


36.128 


103.869 


5 


58.119 


268.803 


5 


80.111 


510.705 


5 102.10 


829.577 


5 


124.09 


1225.42 


6 14.451 


16.6190 


6 


36.442 


105.683 


6 


58.434 


271.716 


6 


80.425 


514.719 


6 102.42 


834.690 


6 


124.41 


1231.63 


7 14.765 


17.3494 


7 


36.757 


107.513 


7 


58.748 


274.646 


7 


80.739 


518.748 


7 102.73 


839.818 


7 


124.72 


1237.86 


8 15.080 


18.0956 


8 


37.071 


109.359 


8 


59.062 


277.591 


8 


81.053 


522.792 


8 103.04 


844.963 


8 


125.04 


1244.10 


9 


15.394 


18.8574 


9 


37.385 


111.220 


9 


59.376 


280.552 


9 


81.369 


526.853 


9103.36 


850.123 


9 


125.35 


1250.36 


5.0 


15.708 


19.6350 


12.0 


37.699 


113.097 


19.0 


59.690 


283.529 


26.0 


81.681 


530.929 


33.0,103.67 


855.299 


40,0 


125,66 


1256,64 


1 


16.022 


20.4282 


1 


38.013 


114.990 


1 


60.004 


286..521 


1 


81.996 


535.021 


1,103.99 


860.490 


1 


125.98 


1262.93 


2 


16.336 


21.2372 


2 


38.327 


116.899 


2 


60.319 


289.529 


2 


82.310 


539.129 


2 104.30 


865.697 


2 


126.29 


1269.23 


3 


16.650 


22.0618 


3 


38.642 


118.823 


3 


60.633 


292.553 


3 


82.624 


543.252 


3: 104.62 


870.920 


3 


126.61 


1275.56 


4 


16.965 


22.9022 


4 


38.956 


120.763 


4 


60.947 


295.592 


4 


82.938 


547.391 


4 104.93 


876.159 


4 


126.92 


1281.90 


5 


17.279 


23.7583 


5 


39.270 


122.718 


5 


61.261 


298.648 


5 


83.252 


551.546 


6 105.24 


881.413 


5 


127.23 


1288.25 


6 


17.593 


24.6301 


6 


39.584 


124.690 


6 


61.575 


301.719 


6 


83.566 


555.716 


6 105.56 


886.683 


6 


127.55 


1294.62 


7 


17.907 


25.5176 


7 


39.898 


126.677 


7 


61.889 


304.805 


7 


83.881 


559.903 


7: 105.87 


891.969 


7 


127.86 


1301.00 


8 


18.221 


26.4208 


8 


40.212 


128.680 


8 


62.204 


307.907 


8 


84.195 


564.104 


8 106.19 


897.270 


8 


128.18 


1307.41 


9 


18.535 


27.3397 


9 


40.527 


130.698 


9 


62.518 


311.026 


9 


84.569 


568.322 


9 1 106.50 


902.587 


9 


li8.49 


1313.82 


6.0 


18.850 


28.2743 


13.0 


40.841 


1.32.732 


20.0 


62.832 


314.159 


27.0 


84.823 


572.555 


34.0 106.81 


907.920 


41.0 


128.81 


1320.25 


1 


19.164 


29.2247 


1 


41.155 


134.782 


1 


63.146 


317.309 


1 


85.137 


576.804 


1 107.13 


913.269 


1 


129.12 


1326.70 


2 19.478 


30.1907 


2 


41.469 


136.848 


2 


63.460 


320.474 


2 


85.451 


•581.069 


2 '107.44 


918.633 


2 


129.43 


1333.17 


3 19.792 


31.1725 


3 


41.783 


138.929 


3 


63.774 


323.655 


3 


85.766 


585.349 


3 107.76 


924.013 


3 129.75 


1339.65 


4 20.106 


32.1699 


4 


42.097 


141.026 


4 


64.088 


326.851 


4 


86.080 


589.646 


' 4 108.07 


929.409 


4'130.06 


1.346.14 


5 20.420 


33.1831 


5 


42.412 


143.1.39 


5 


64.403 


330.064 


5 


86.394 


593.957 


5 108.38 


934.820 


5:i30.38 


1352.65 


6 20.735 


34.2119 


6 


42.726 


145.267 


6 


64.717 


333.292 


6 


86.708 


598.285 


6 108.70 


940.247 


6'130.69 


1359.18 


7 21.049 


35.2565 


7 


43.040 


147.411 


7 


65.031 


336.535 


7 


87.022 


602.628 


7 109.01 


945.690 


7:131.00 


1365.72 


8 21.363 


36.3168 


8 


43.354 


149.571 


8 


65.345 


339.795 


8 


87.336 


606.987 


8 109.33 


951.149 


8|131.32 


1372.28 


9 


21.677 


37.3928 


9 


43.668 


151.747 


9 


65.659 


343.070 


9 


87.650 


611.362 


9 109.64 


956.623 


9 


131.63 


1378.85 



HELIOS 



205 



Table No. 73 — Continued. 
Diameters, Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 



Advancing. by lOths. 



U 



42.0 131.95 

1 132.26 

2 132.58 

3 132.89 
41133.20 
51133.52 
6 133.83 
7! 134.15 
8 134.46 



1385.44 
1392.05 
1398.67 
1405.31 
1411.96 
1418.63 
1425.31 
1432.01 
1438.72 



9 134.7711445.45 
43.0 135.09 1452.20 



li 135.40 
21135.72 
3 j 136.03 

4 136.35 

5 136.66 
6ll36.97 

137.29 
137.60 
137.92 

44.0 138.23 
1 1 138.54 
21138.86 

3 139.17 

4 139.49 

5 139.80 

6 140.12 



1458.93 
1465.74 
1472.54 
1479.34 
1486.17 
1493.01 
1499.87 
1506.74 
1513.63 

1520.53 
1527.45 
1534.39 
1541.34 
1548.30 
1555.28 
1562.28 



7:140.4311569.30 
8 140.74' 1576.33 
9,141.06,1583.37 

45.0 141.37'l590.43 
1 141.69:1597.51 



2 142.00 
3 '142.31 

4 142.63 

5 142.94 

6 143.26 

7 143.57 



1604.60 
1611.71 
1618.83 
1625.97 
1633.13 
1640.30 



8'143.89 1647.48 
9 144.20,1654.68 



46.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 



144.51 1661.90 
144.83 1669.14 
145.14,1676.39 
145.46! 1683.65 
145.77 1690.93 
146.08 1698.23 
61146.40 1705.54 

7 146.71 '1712.87 

8 147.03 1720.21 

9 147.34; 1727.57 



47.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 



147.65' 1734.94 
147.97 1742.34 
148.28 1749.74 
148.60 1757.16 
148.91 1764.60 
1 19.23 1772.05 
149.54,1779.52 
149.85 1787.01 
150.17 1794.51 
9 1150.48. 1802.03 



48.0 150.80 1809.56 
1 151.11 1817.11 
151.43 1824.67 
151.74 1832.25 
152.0511839.84 
152.37 1847.45 
152.68 1855.08 
153.00 1862.72 
153.31 1870.38 
9 153.62 1878.05 



49.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 



50.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



51.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 



52.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 



53.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 



54.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



55.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



u 



153.94 
154.25 
154.57 
154.88 
155.19 
155.51 
155.82 
156.14 
156.45 
156.77 

157.08 
157.39 
157.71 
158.02 
158.34 
158.65 
158.97 
159.28 
159.59 
159.91, 

160.22 ' 
160.54 
160.85 
161.16 
161.48 
161.79 
162.11 
162.42 
162.73 
163.05 

163.36' 
163.68 
163.98 
164.31 
164.62 
164.931 
165.25 
165.56 
165.88 
166.19, 

166.50 
166.82 
167.13 
167.45 
167.76; 
168.08 
168.39 
168.70 
169.02 
169.33 

169.65 
169.96 
170.27 
170.59 
170.90 
171.22 
171.53 
171.85 
172.16 
172.47 

172.79 
173.10 
173.42 
173.73 
174.04 
174.36 
174.67 
174.99 
175.30 
175.62 



1885.74 
1893.45 
1901.17 
1908.90 
1916.65 
1924.42 
1932.21 
1940.00 
1947.82 
1955.65 

1963.50 
1971.36 
1979.23 
1987.13 
1995.04 
2002.96 
2010.90 
2018.86 
2026.83 
2034.82 

2042.82 
2050.84 
2058.87 
2066.92 
2074.99 
2083.07 
2091.17 
2099.28 
2107.41 
2115.56 

2123.72 
2131.89 
2140.08 
2148.29 
2156.51 
2164.75 
2173.01 
2181.28 
2189.56 
2197.87 

2290.22 
2298.71 
2307.22 
2315.74 
2324.28 
23.32.83 
2341.40 
2349.98 
2358.58 
2367.20 

2375.83 
2384.48 
2393.14 
2401.82 
2410.51 
2419.22 
2427.95 
2436.69 
2445.45 
2454.22 

2463.01 
2471.81 
2480.63 
2489.47 
2498.32 
2507.19 
2516.07 
2524.97 
2533.88 
2542.81 



CJ 



66.0 175.93 

1 176.24 

2 176.56 

3 176.87 

4 177.19 

5 177.50 

6 177.81 

7 178.13 

8 178.44 

9 178.76 

57.0 179.07 
11179.39 
2I179.7O 
3|180.01 
4 180.33 
6:180.64 

6 180.96 

7 181.27 

8 181. -58 
9181.90 

68.0 182.21 
li 182.53 
2 182.84 
3'183.16 
4 183.47 
6 183.78 
6 184.10 
7,184.41 

8 184.73 

9 185.04 

59.0' 185.35 

1 185.67 

2 185.98 
3'l86.30 
4 186.61 
6 186.93 
6 187.24 
7187.55 
8 187.87 
9,188.18 

60.0 188.50 

1 188.81 

2 189.12 
3^189.44 
4,189.75 
6:190.07 
61190.38 
7:190.70 
8191.01 
9,191.32 



2463.01 
2471.81 
2480.63 

2489.47 
2498.32 
2507.19 
2516.07 
2524.97 
2533.88 
2542.81 

2551.76 
2560.72 
2569.70 
2578.69 
2587.70 
2596.72 
2605.76 
2614.82 
2623.89 
2632.98 

2642.08 
2651.20 
2660.33 
2669.48 
2678.65 
2687.83 
2697.01 
2706.24 
2715.47 
2724.71 

2733.97 
2743.25 
2752.54 
2761.84 
2771.17 
2780.51 
2789.86 
2799.23 
2808.62 
2818.02 

2827.43 
2836.87 
2846.31 
2855.78 
2865.26 
2874.75 
2884.26 
2893.79 
2903.33 
2912.89 



61.0 191.64 2922.47 

1 191.95 2932.06 

2 192.27 2941.66 

3 192.68 2961.28 

4 192.89 2960.92 

5 193.21 2970.67 

6 193.52 1 2980.24 

7 193.84 '2989.92 

8 194.15 2999.62 

9 194.47 3009.34 

62.0 194.78 3019.07 

1 195.09 3028.82 

2 195.41 3038.58 

3 195.72 3048.36 

4 196.04|3058.15 
6 196.35 3067.96 

6 196.66 3077.79 

7 196.98 3087.63 

8 197.29 3097.48 

9 179.69 3107.36 



u 



63.0 197.92 3117.26 



1 198.24 

2 198.55 

3 198.86 

4 199.18 

5 199.49 

6 199.81 

7 200.12 

8 200.42'3196.92 

9 200.75,3206.95 



3127.15 
3137.07 
3147.00 
3156.96 
3166.92 
3176.90 
3186.90 



64.0 201.06 
1,201.38 
2 201.69 
3,202.00 
4202.32 

5 202.63 

6 202.95 
7,203.26 
8 203.58 
9,203.89 

65.0204.20 

1 204.50 

2 204.83 

3 205.16 

4 205.46 
6'205.77 
6 206.09 
7 1 206.40 
8 206.72 
9,207.03 

66.0207.35 
1' 207. 66 
2 207.97 
31208.28 

4 208.60 
51208.92 
6209.23 
71209.54 
8 209.86 
9i210.17 

67.0 210.49 
1 210.80 
2:211.12 
3:211.43 
4211.74 

5 212.06 

6 212.37 

7 212.69 

8 213.00 
9|213.31 

68.0 213.36 

1 213.94 

2 214.26 

3 214.57 
4214.89 
6 216.20 
6215.51 
7216.83 
8 216.14 
9,216.46 



3216.99 
3227.05 
3237.13 
3247.22 
3267.33 
3267.46 
3277.59 
3287.75 
3297.92 
3308.10 

3318.31 
3328.53 
3338.76 
3349.01 
3359.27 
3369.56 
3379.85 
3390.16 
3400.49 
3410.84 

3421.19 
3431.57 
3441.96 
3452.37 
3462.79 
3473.23 
3483-68 
3494.15 
3504.64 
3515.14 

3525.66 
3536.18 
3546.73 
3657.30 
3567.88 
3578.47 
3589.08 
3599.71 
3610.35 
3621.01 

3631.68 
3642.37 
3653.08 
3663.80 
3674.53 
3685.28 
3696.06 
3706.84 
3717.64 
3728.45 



69.0 216.6713739.28 

1 217.08 3750.13 

2 217.40 3760.99 

3 217.71 3771.87 

4 218.03 3782.76 

5 218. .34, 3793. 67 

6 218.66'3804.59 

7 218.97 3816.54 

8 219.28 3826.49 

9 219.60,3837.46 



70.0219.91 

1 220.23 

2 220.54 

3 220.85 

4 221.17 

5 221.48 

6 221.80 

7 222.11 

8 222.43 

9 222.74 

71.0 223.06 

1 223.37 

2 223.68 

3 224.00 

4 224.31 
6 224.62 
6 224.94 
7,225.26 
8 226.67 
9,226.88 

72.0226.19 

1 226.51 

2 226.82 

3 227.14 

4 227.46 

5 227.77 
6,228.08 
7,228.39 
8 228.71 
9I229.O2 

73.01229.34 

1 229.65 

2 229.97 
3230.28 
4,230.59 

5 230.91 

6 231.22 
7231.54 
8 231.85 
9232.16 

74.0 232.48 

1 232.79 

2 233.11 

3 233.42 

4 233.73 

5 234.05 

6 234.36 

7 234.68 



3848.46 
3859.45 
3870.47 
3881.51 
3892.56 
3903.63 
3914.71 
3925.80 
3936.92 
3948.05 

3959.19 
3970.35 
3981.53 
3992.72 
4003.92 
4015.15 
4026.39 
4037.66 
4048.92 
4060.20 

4071.50 
4082.82 
4094.16 
4105.50 
4116.87 
4128.25 
4139.65 
4151.06 
4162.48 
4173.93 

4185.39 
4196.86 
4208.35 
4219.86 
4231.38 
4242.93 
4254.48 
4266.04 
4277.62 
4289.22 

4300.84 
4312.47 
4324.12 
4335.78 
4347.46 
4369.16 
4370.87 
4382.59 



8 234.99 4394.33 

9 235.31,4406.09 

76.o'235.62'4417.86 

1 235.93 4429.65 

2 236.25 4441.46 

3 236.56 4453.28 

4 236.8814465. 11 

5 237.19 4476.97 

6 237.50 4488.83 

7 237.82 4500.72 
8,238.13 4512.62 
91238.45 4624.53 

76.0 238.76 4536.46 

1 239.08 4548.41 

2 239.39 4560.37 

3 239.70,4572.34 

4 240.02 4684.34 

5 240.33 4596.35 

6 240.66 4608.37 

7 240.96 4620.42 

8 241.27:4632.47 

9 241.59 4644.54 



77.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
6 
6 



78.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 



79.0 
1 
2 
3 
4 
6 
6 



u 
241.901 
242.22 
242.53 
242.85 
243.16 
243.4 
243.79 
244.10 
244.42 
244.73 

245.04 
246.36 
245.67 
245.99 
246.30 
246.62 
246.93 
247.24 
247.56 
247.87 

248.19 
248.50 
248.81 
249.13 
249.44 
249.76 
2.50.07 
250.38 
2.50.70 
251.01 

251.33 
1.61 
251.96 
252.27 
252.58 
252.90 
253.21 
253.53 
253. 
264.15 



81.02.54.47 
1 2.54.78 



266.10 
265.41 
255.73 
266.04 
266.35 
266.67 
256.98 
257.30 



82.0257.76 
1,257.92 
2258.24 
3258.56 
4'258.87 
5:259. 18 
6i259.60 
7259.81 
81260.12 
9,260.44, 

83.0260.75! 
1261.07 

2 261.38 

3 261.69 

4 262.01 

5 262.32 
6262.64 
7262.95 
8263.27 
9 263.58 



4656.63 
4668.73 
4680.85 
4692.98 
4705.13 
4717.30 
4729.48 
4741.68 
4753.89 
4766.12 

4778.36 
4790.62 
4802.90 
4815.19 
4827.50 
4839.82 
4852.16 
4864.51 
4876.88 
4889.27 

4901.67 
4914.09 
4926.52 
4938.97 
4951.43 
4963.91 
4976.41 
4988.92 
5001.45 
5013.99 

5026,55 
50.39.12 
5051.71 
5064.32 
5076.94 
5089.58 
102.23 
5114.90 
5127.58 
5140.28 

5153.00 
6166.73 
6178.48 
6191.24 
5204.02 
5216.81 
5229.62 
5242.45 
5255.29 
5268.14 

5281.02 
5293.91 
5306.81 
5319.73 
5332.67 
5345.62 
5368.68 
.5371.67 
!5384.56 
6397.58 

.5410.61 
5423.65 
5436.71 
5449.79 
6462.88 
5475.99 
5489.12 
5502.26 
5515.41 
5528..58 




null III- '" 

1 1 1 11 1 ( 




KEENAN BUILDING, PITTSBURG, PA., 
CONTAINS 885 H. P. OF HEINE BOILERS. 



HELIOS 



207 



Table No. 73 — Continued. 
Diameters, Circumferences and Areas of Circles. 

















Ad 


vancing 


by lOths. 


















E 






B 






E 






6 






i 






£ 




1 


a 


a 


i 


3 


d 


1 




a 


E 


3 


a 


i 


a 


n 


E 




M 


Q 


U 


< 


5 


o 


< 


■q 


U 


< 


S 


u 


< 


H 


'6 


< 


5 


'6 


< 


Sl.O 


263.89 


5541.77 


87.0 


273.32 


5944.68 


90.0 


282.74 


6361.73 


93.0 


292.17 


6792.91 


96.0 


301.59 7238.23 


98.0 


307.88 


7542.96 


1 


264.21 


5554.97 


1 


273.63 


5958.35 


1 


283.06 6375.87 


1 


292.48 


6807.52 


1 


301.917253.32 


1308.19i7.558.37 


2 


264.52 


5588.19 


2 


273.95 


5972.04 


2 


283.37:6390.03 


2 


292.80 


6822.16 


2 


302.22 7268.42 


2 308..50 7.573.78 


3 


264.84 


5581.42 


3 


274.26 


5985.75 


3 


283.69 16404.21 


3 


293.11 


6836.80 


3 


302.54 7283.54 


3 308.82 7.589.22 


4 


265.15 


5594.67 


4 


274.58 


5999.47 


4 


284.00^6418.40 


4 


293.42 


6851.47 


4 


302,85 7298.67 


4 309.13,7604.66 


5 


265.46 


5607.94 


5 274.89 


6013.20 


5 


284.31 6432.61 


5 


293.74 


6866.15 


5 


303.16 7313.82 


5 309.45 7620 13 


6 


265.78 


5621.22 


6 1 275.20 


6026.96 


6 


284.63 16446.83 


6 


294.05 


6880.84 


6 


303.48 7328.99 


6 309.76 7635.61 


7 


266.09 


5634.52 


7|275.52 


6040.73 


7 


284.94:6461.07 


7 


294.37 


6895.55 


7 


303.79 7.344.17 


7 310.08 7651.11 


8 


266.41 


5647.83 


8:275.83 


6054.51 


8 


285.26 6475.33 


8 


294.68)6910.28 


8 


.304.117.359.37 


8 310.39 7666.62 


9 


266.72 


5661.16 


9 276.15 


6068.31 


9 


285.57 6489.60 


9 


295.00 6925.02 


9 


304.42 7374.58 


9 310.70 7682.14 


85.0 


267.04 


5674.50 


88.0276.46 


6082.12 


91.0 


285.88 6503.88 


94.0 


295.31 6939.78 


97.0 


304.73 7389.81 


99.0 311.02 7697.69 


1 


267.35 


5687.86 


11276.77 


6095.95 


1 


286.20 


6518.18 


1 


295.62 6954.55 


1 


305.05 7405.06 


1311.33,7713.25 


2 


267.66 


5701.24 


2'277.09 


6109.80 


2 


286.51 


6532.50 


2 


295.94 6969.34 


2 


305.36 7420.32 


2 311.65,7728.32 


3 


267.98 


5714.63 


31277.40 


6123.66 


3 


286.83 


6546.84 


3 


296.25 


6984.15 


3 


305.68 7435.59 


3 311.96 7744.41 


4 


268.29 


5728.03 


4 277.72 


6137.54 


4 


287.14 


6561.18 


4 


296.57 


6998.97 


4 


305.99 7450.88 


4 312.27 7760.02 


5 


268.61 


5741.46 


5,278.03 


6151.43 


5 


287.46 16575.55 


5; 296.88 


7013.80 


5 


306.31 7466.19 


5 312.59 7775.64 


6 


268.92 


5754.90 


6,278.35 


6165.34 


6 


287.77 6589.93 


6 


297.19 


7028.65 


6 


306 627481.51 


6 312.90 7791.28 


7 


269.23 


5768.35 


7:278.66 


6179.27 


7 


288.08,6604.33 


7 


297.51 


7043.52 


7 


306.93 7496.85 


7,313.22,7806.93 


8 


269.55 


5781.82 


8 278.97 


6193.21 


8 


288.40 6618.74 


8 


297.82 


7058.40 


8 


307.25 7512.21 


8;313.53i7822.60 


9 


269.86 


5795.30 


9i279.29 


6207.17 


9 


288.71 6633.17 


9 


298.14 7073.30 


9 


307.56 7527.57 


9313.85 7838.28 


























100.0 314.167854.00 


86.0 


270.18 5808.80 


89.0279.60 


6221.14 


92.0 


289.03 6647.61 


95.0 


298.45 7088.22 












1 


270.491 5822.32 


1 279.92 


6235.13 


1 


289.34 6662.07 


1 


298.77 7103.15 












2 


270.81 5835.85 


2 280.23 


6249.13 


2 


289.65, 6676..54 


2 


299.08 


7118.09 










3 


271.12 j 5849.40 


3 280.54 


6263.15 


3 


289.97 


6691.03 


3|299.39 


7133.06 










4 


271.43 


5862.97 


4 280.86 


6277.18 


4 


290.28 


6705.54 


4i299.71 


7148.03 










5 


271.75 


5876.55 


5281.17 


6291.24 


5 


290.60 


6720.06 


5 


300.02 


7163.03 










6 


272.06 


5890.14 


6 281.49 


6305..30 


6 


290.91 


6734.60 


6 


300.34 


7178.04 










7 


272.38 


5903.75 


7 281.80 


6319.38 


7 


291.23 


6749.15 


7 


300.65 


7193.06 










8 


272.69 


5917.38 


8 282.12 


6333.48 


8 


291.54 


6763.72 


8 


300.96 


7208.10 




i 






9 


273.00' 5931.02 


91282.43 


6347.60 


9 


291.85j6778.31 


9 


301.28j7223.16 




1 




i 




FOUR 492 H. P. HEINE BOILERS, SUMITOMO BESSEII MINES, JAPAN. 




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HELIOS 



209 



Table No. 74 
Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, and the Contents in Gallons for 

One Foot of Depth. 



Diameter. 


CiRCUM. 


Area 


Gallons. 


Diameter. 


CiRCUM. 


Area 


Gallons. 










in sq. 
feet. 


1 Ft. 
Depth. 










in sq. 
feet. 


1 Ft. 


















Depth. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 






Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 






4 




12 


6M 


12.56 


93.97 


13 


3 


41 


74 


1.37.88 


1031.17 


4 


1 


12 


9% 


13.09 


97.93 


13 


6 


42 


^Vz 


143,13 


1070 45 


4 


2 


13 


1 


13.63 


101.97 


13 


9 


43 


2J€ 


148.48 


1108.06 


4 


3 


13 


iVs 


14.18 


103.03 


14 




43 


IIM 


153.93 


1151.21 


4 


4 


13 


714 


14.74 


110.29 


14 


3 


44 


9J^ 


1.59.48 


1192.69 


4 


5 


13 


101^ 


15.. 32 


114.57 


14 


6 


45 


6% 


165.13 


12.34.91 


4 


6 


14 


m 


15.90 


118.93 


14 


9 


46 


4 


170.87 


1277.86 


4 
4 
4 
4 

4 


7 

8 

9 

10 

11 


14 
14 
14 
15 
15 


11 

514 


16.49 
17.10 
17.72 
18.34 
18.98 


123.38 
127.91 
132.52 
137 21 
142.05 


15 
15 
15 
15 


3 
6 
9 


47 
47 
48 
49 


IK 
10% 

8,14 
5% 


176.71 
182.65 
188.69 
194.82 


1321.54 
1365.96 
1407.51 
1457.00 


5 
5 
5 
5 


1 

2 
3 


15 
15 
16 
16 


8}2 

mi 
2^1 
53.4 


19.63 
20.29 
20.96 
21.64 


146.83 
151.77 
156.78 
161.88 


16 
16 
16 
16 


3 
6 
9 


50 
51 
51 
52 


3% 
OK 
10 

7% 


201.06 
207.39 
213.82 
220.35 


1503.62 
1550.97 
1599.06 
1647.89 


5 


4 


16 


9 


22.34 


167.06 


17 




53 


4% 


226.98 


1697.45 


5 


5 


17 


QVs 


23.04 


172.33 


17 


3 


54 


2K 


233.70 


1747.74 


5 


6 


17 


3H 


23.75 


177.67 


17 


6 


54 


11% 


240.52 


1798.76 


5 


7 


17 


QVs 


24.48 


183.09 


17 


9 


55 


9% 


247.45 


1850.53 


5 


8 


17 


m 


25.21 


188.60 


18 




56 


6K 


254.46 


1903.02 


5 


9 


18 


OH 


25.96 


194.19 


18 


3 


57 


4 


261.58 


1965.25 


5 


10 


18 


SVs 


26.72 


199.86 


18 


6 


58 


1% 


268.80 


2010.21 


6 


11 


18 


7,^ 


27.49 


205.61 


18 


9 


58 


lOM 


276.11 


2064.91 


6 




18 


10.^ 


28.27 


211.44 


19 




59 


8M 


283.52 


2120.34 


6 


3 


19 


71.^ 


30.67 


229.43 


19 


3 


60 


5% 


291.03 


2176.51 


6 


6 


20 


m 


33.18 


248.15 


19 


6 


61 


3% 


298.64 


2233.29 


6 


9 


21 


2H 


35.78 


267.61 


10 


9 


62 


OK 


306.35 


2291.04 


7 




21 


WA 


38.48 


287.80 


20 




62 


9K 


314.16 


2349.41 


7 


3 


22 


914 


41.28 


308.72 


20 


3 


63 


7% 


322.06 


2408.51 


7 


6 


23 


6?.i 


44.17 


330.38 


20 


6 


64 


4M 


330.06 


2468.35 


7 


9 


24 


4>^ 


47.17 


352.76 


20 


9 


65 


2M 


338.16 


2528.92 


8 




25 


IH 


50.26 


375.90 


21 




65 


11% 


346.36 


2590.22 


8 


3 


25 


11 


53.45 


399.76 


21 


3 


66 


9 


354.65 


2652.25 


8 


6 


26 


83^ 


56.74 


424.36 


21 


6 


67 


6K 


363.05 


2715.04 


8 


9 


27 


534 


60.13 


449.21 


21 


9 


68 


3% 


371.54 


2778.54 


9 




28 


314 


63.61 


475.75 


22 




69 


1% 


380.13 


2842.79 


9 


3 


29 


OM 


67.20 


502.55 


22 


3 


69 


10^ 


388.82 


2907.76 


9 


6 


29 


\oy% 


70.88 


530.08 


22 


6 


70 


8K 


397.60 


2973.48 


9 


9 


30 


W2 


74.66 


558.35 


22 


9 


71 


5% 


406.49 


3039.92 


10 




31 


5 


78.54 


587.35 


23 




72 


3 


415.47 


3107.10 


10 


3 


32 


2^8 


82.51 


617.08 


23 


3 


73 


OK 


424.55 


3175.01 


10 


6 


32 


\\M 


86.59 


647.55 


23 


6 


73 


9% 


433.73 


3243.65 


10 


9 


33 


9M 


90.76 


678.27 


23 


9 


74 


7K 


443.01 


3313.04 


11 




34 


6% 


95.03 


710.69 


24 




75 


4M 


452.39 


3383.15 


11 


3 


35 


4^ 


99.40 


743.36 


24 


3 


76 


2% 


461.86 


3454.00 


11 


6 


36 


IK 


103.86 


776.77 


24 


6 


76 


11% 


471.43 


3525.59 


11 


9 


36 


10% 


108.43 


810.91 


24 


9 


77 


9 


481.10 


3597.90 


12 




37 


8% 


113.09 


848.18 


25 




78 


6% 


490.87 


3670.95 


12 


3 


38 


5M 


117.85 


881.39 


25 


3 


79 


^y% 


500.74 


3744.74 


12 


6 


39 


3J€ 


122.71 


917.73 


25 


6 


80 


IK 


510 70 


3819.26 


12 


9 


40 


0>g 


127.67 


954.81 


25 


9 


80 


lOM 


520.76 


3894.52 


13 




40 


10 


132.73 


992.62 
















Q 
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Q 

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In d e X . 



Page 

Absorbing Powur of Surfaces ... (Table 10) 17 

Air, Composition of 29 

Air, Required for Combustion 38 

Air, Weight of 41 

American Boiler Manufacturers Ass'n Boiler 

Specifications 125 

Atomic Theory 30 

C 

Bagasse 60 

Bagasse, Fuel Value of (Table 28) 63 

Boiler, The 123 

Boiler, Design 130 

Boiler, Horse Power 109 

Boiler, Materials 126 

Boiler, Specifications 125 

Boiler, Testing 109 

Boiler, Tubes, Dimensions of . . . . (Table 69) 195 

Boilers, Energy Stored in : 120 

Boilers, Factors of Safety of 133 

Boilers, Safety and Durability of 124 

Boiling Points of Liquids (Table 6) 13 

Brass Plates, Weight of (Table 67) 191 

Breechings 147 

B.T. U., Definition of 7,9 

C 

Calories 7,9 

Carbon 29 

Carbon Dioxide 33 

Carbon Monoxide 33 

Centigrade and Fahrenheit Scales 

(Tablesl6,17) 24 

Chemistry of Combustion 30 

Chimneys 147 

Chimneys, Heights of and Areas (Table 59) 151 
Circles, Diam., Circum. and 

Areas of (Tables 72-73) 200,204 

Coal 43 

Coal, Classification 46 

Coal, Compared with Gas (Table 33) 73 

Coal, Composition of (Table 23) 49 

Coal, Quantity produced (Table 24) 61 

CoalTar 55 

Coke 51 

Combustion 29 

Combustion, Data (Tables 21,22) 37,39,41 

Combustion, Heat of 37, 39 

Condensation in Steam Pipes 103 

Conduction of Heat 18 

Copper Plates, Weight of (Table 67) 191 

Covering Steam Pipes, Saving 

due to (Tables 52,53) 105, 108 

D 

Draft 147 

Draft Pressures (Table 58) 149 



E 

Page 

Economy of Fuel in Boilers 123 

Energy Stored in Steam Boilers. 120 

EngHsh-Metric Liquid and Dry 

Measures (Table 65) 183 

English-Metric Long Measure . . . (Table 64) 187 

English-Metric Miscellaneous .... (Table 66) 189 

English-Metric Square (Table 64) 187 

English-Metric Weights (Table 65) 188 

Evaporation, Latent heat of (Table 4) 13 

Expansion by Heat 11, 14 

Expansion of Solids (Table 7) 14 



Factors of Evaporation (Table 45) 97 

Factors of Safety 133 

Fahrenheit and Centigrade Scales 

(Tables 16, 17) 24 

Feed Water Heaters 92 

Feed Water Heating 86 

Feed Water Heating, Saving by (Table 43) 91 , 93 

Firing Coal, Methods of 47 

Feet, Square, in Square Inches. .(Table 63) 185 

Fractions, Vulgar and Decimal.. (Table 60) 179 

Fuel, Burning of 33 

Fuel, Economy in Boilers 123 

Fuel Cost 73 

Fuel Oil' 65 

Fuels 43 

Fusion , Latent Heat of (Table 3) 11 



G 



Gas Compared with Coal (Table 33) 73 

Gas, Composition of (Table 32) 71 

Gas, Fuel ■. . . 70 

Gas, Quantity Produced (Table 36) 75 

Gases, Specific Heat of (Table 15) 2 1 



H 



Heat 7 

Heat, Conversion of 9 

Heat, Conduction of 18 

Heat, Latent 10 

Heat, Mechanical Equivalent of 9 

Heat, Radiant 11 

Heat , Sensible 10 

Heat, Convection 19 

Heat, Definitions 10 

Heat, Measurements 7, 10 

Heat, of Combustion 37, 39 

Heat, Transmission, Co-efficient 

of (Table 12) 19 

Heaters for Feed Water 92 

Heating Feed Water 86 

Heine Boiler, Description of 153 

Heine Boiler, Construction of 153 

Heine Boiler, Manufacturing Facilities 166 

Heine Boiler, Setting and Operation of . . . . 156 




CO 

O 

o 

d 
o 

O H 
P^ U 

;^ 

p 

P^ 



O P 

3 



Index 

Concluded 



H 

Page 

Heine Boiler, Special Settings 107,168,169 

Heine Superheaters ■ 1"3 

Horse Power, Definition of 9, 109 

Horse Power Ratings for Boilers 109 

Hydrostatic Pressures 133 

I 

Impurities in Water 81 

Inches, Square, in Fractions of 

sq. ft (Table 62) 183 

Inches in Fractions of a foot ..... (Table 61) 181 
Iron, Weights of Round and 

Square (Table 68) 193 

Iron, Radiating Power of (Table 11) 18 

Iron Plates, weight of (Table 67) 191 

L 

Latent Heat 10 

Latent Heat of Evaporation (Table 4) 13 

Liquids, Specific Heat of (Table 14) 21 

M 

Materials for Boilers 126 

Melting Points of Solids (Table 5) 13 

Metal Plates, Weight of (Table 67) 191 

Metric-EngUsh Liquid and Dry 

Measure (Table 65) 188 

Metric-English Long Measure . . . (Table 64) 187 

Metric-EngHsh Miscellaneous .... (Table 66) 189 

Metric-English Square Measure (Table 64) 187 

Metric-English Weights (Table 65) 188 

O 

Oil, Fuel 65 

Oil , Fuel , Production of (Tables 29 , 30) 65 

Oil, Fuel, Analysis (Table 31) 69 

Oil, Fuel, Advantages of 66 

Oil, Fuel, Disadvantages of 67 

Oil in Boilers 84 

Oil Tar 56 

Oxygen .29 

P 

Peat 53 

Pipe, Dimensions of (Tables 70,71) 197, 198 

Pipe Covering 104 

Plates, Weight of metal (Table 67) 191 

Pressure, Loss of in Pipes 85 

Pressures of Water (Tables 37 , 38) 78 , 79 

Properties of Steam (Table 44) 96 

Purification of Water 81 

Pyrometers, Types of 26 

Pyrometry 25 

R 

Radiant Heat 11 

Radiation 15, 17 

Reflecting Power of Surfaces. . . . (Table 10) 17 



Riveted Joints 

Safety of Boilers 

Safety Valves 

Safety Valve Sizes (Table 56) 

Sensible Heat 

Solids, Specific Heat of (Table 13) 

Specific Heat 

Specific Heat of Substances 

(Tables 13,14,15) 

Specific Heat of Superheated Steam 

Specific Heat of Water 

Specifications for boilers 

Square Feet in Square Inches. . . (Table 63) 
Square Inches in Fractions of 

sq. ft...,. (Table 62) 

Stacks, (See Chimneys) 

Steam 

Steam, Condensation of in Pipes 

Steam , Motion of 

Steam, Outflow of (Tables 48,49) 

Steam, Properties of (Table 44) 

Steam , Superheated 

Steam, Specific Heat of Superheated 

Steel Plates, Weight of (Table 67) 

Straw 

Superheaters 

Superheaters, Heine 



Tan Bark 

Tanks, Contents of in Gallons. . . (Table 74) 

Tar 

Tar, Coal 

Tar, Oil 

Temperature 

Temperatures Judged by colors. (Table 18) 

Thermometer Scales 

Testing Boilers, Rules for .■ 

Tubes, Boiler, Dimensions of (Table 69) 



W 



Water 

Water, Expansion and Contraction of 

Water, Flow of in Pipes (Table 41) 

Water, Impurities in 

Water, Loss of Pressure in Pipes (Table 42) 

Water, Specific Heat of 

Water, Weight of (Table 39) 

Water, Pressures (Tables 37,38) 

Water, Purification 

Weight of Metal Plates (Table 67) 

Weight of Square and Round 

Iron (Table 68) 

Weight of Water (Table 39) 

Wood 

Wood, Composition of (Table 25) 

Wood, Weight of (Table 25) 



Page 

130 

124 

135 

140 

10 

20 

19,20 

20,21 
101 
80 
125 
185 

183 
147 

95 

103 

101 

102,103 

96 

98 
101 
191 

60 
143 
173 



59 
209 
55 
55 
56 
23 
27 
23 
109 
195 



77 

80 
85,87 

81 
85,87 

80 
77,80 
78,79 

81 
191 

193 
77,80 
56 
59 
59 



APe 10 1912 



